THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


NATURAL    HISTORY 


BIRDS. 

THEIR  ARCHITECTURE,   HABITS,  AND 
FACULTIES. 

WITH    NUMEROUS    ENGRAVINGS. 


NEW-YORK: 

HARPER  &    BROTHERS,   82  CLIFF-STREET. 
1839. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1839,  by 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Southern  District  of  New- York. 


PUBLISHERS'  ADVERTISEMENT. 


FLOWERS  have  been  called  "  the  poetry  of  na- 
ture," a  compliment  which  might  be  applied,  with 
even  more  justice,  to  birds ;  which  not  only  vie 
with  the  tulip  and  the  rose  in  the  splendour  and 
beauty  of  their  colours,  but  in  their  sprightly  and 
joyous  movements,  their  graceful  forms,  and,  more 
than  all,  in  the  variety  and  sweetness  of  their  mel- 
ody, may  be  said  to  imbody  the  very  soul  of  poe- 
try. It  must  be  highly  pleasing,  therefore,  and  no 
less  instructive,  to  study  the  character  and  habits 
of  this  most  interesting  portion  of  "  animated  na- 
ture." 

The  volume  here  offered  to  the  public  will  be 
found  to  contain  many  charming,  and  scarcely  less 
wonderful  things,  in  relation  to  the  feathered  tribes  ; 
and  the  reader  will  discover  that  the  great  Creator 
has  been  no  less  liberal  in  endowing  them  with 
the  instincts  essential  to  their  individual  preser- 
vation and  happiness,  than  with  the  qualities  which 
make  them  more  directly  the  objects  of  our  ad- 
miration and  delight. 


it  ADVERTISEMENT. 

Tnis  work  was  originally  published  under  the 
direction  of  the  British  Society  for  the  diffusion  of 
Useful  Knowledge,  and  has  been  carefully  reyised, 
and  such  portions  as  were  least  interesting  have 
been  omitted  in  the  present  edition. 

H.  &  B. 

New-  York,  October,  1839. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Page 

Observation  and  Inattention  contrasted       ....      9 

A  Taste  for  Natural  History  requires  Cultivation    .        .    10 

Extraordinary  Enthusiasm  of  Wilson       .        .        .        .11 

Quinary  System,  with  the  Orders  and  Families  of -Birds, 

by  M.  Vigors 13 

CHAPTER  I.— MINING  BIRDS. 

Inventions  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Lower  Animals       .    17 
The  Mining  of  the  Bank-swallow  .        .        .        .18 


White's  Account  of  this  Corrected 

How  the  Holes  are  Circular     . 

Sociality  of  the  Bank-swallow 

The  Mining  Habits  of  the  Peterel 


ib. 
19 
20 
21 


Wilson's  Account  of  the  Peterel  at  Sea  .  .  .  .  ib. 
Superstitions  of  Mariners  accounted  for  .  .  .  .23 
Peterels  do  not  carry  their  Eggs  under  their  Wings  .  24 
The  Burrowing  Owl  (Strix  Cunicularia)  .  .  .  .25 
The  Account  of  Charles  Bonaparte  .  .  .  .  ib. 
Its  Sociality  with  the  Prairie-dog 26 

CHAPTER  II.— GROUND   BUILDERS. 

Requisites  of  a  Bird's  Nest 27 

Internal  Heat  of  the  Earth  important  .  .  .  .28 

Its  Temperature  known  to  Birds 29 

Moisture  not.  always  Injurious  to  Hatching  .  .  .  ib. 

Nest  of  the  Willet  and  other  Birds 30 

The  Eider-duck  (Somateria  Mollissima)  .  .  .  .  ib. 

Localities  chosen  for  Nestling 31 

Preference  for  small  Islands ib. 

Female  plucks  the  Down  from  her  Breast  .  .  .32 

Elasticity  of  the  Down ib. 

The  Redbreast  (Sylvia  Ritbecula) 33 

Redbreast's  Nest  at  Christinas ib. 

Fanciful  Account  of  a  .Redbreast's  Nest  .  ...  34 


IV  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  III.— MASON  BIRDS. 

Page 

The  Barricade  of  the  Nut-hatch  (Sitta  Europaea)  .    36 

••••*'  .37 

.    ib. 
.     39 


Its  probable  Design 
American  Cliff-swallow 
Masonry  of  the  Window-swallow 

Their  Nests  destroyed  by  Rain 

The  Swallow  a  general  Favourite 
The  Flamingo      .        . 

Its  singular  pyramidal  Nest 

Account  of,  by  Dampier 


.  41 

.  42 

.  ib. 

.  ib. 

.  43 

Other  Accounts,  by  Catesby,  Labat,  and  Descourtilz       .  45 

CHAPTER   IV.— CARPENTER    BIRDS. 

The  term  Carpenter  applied  to  many  Species  of  Birds        .  45 

The  Toucan 46 

Woodpeckers 47 

Misrepresented  by  Buffon ib. 

Defended  by  Wilson 48 

Wilson's  Account  of  the  Downy  Woodpecker          .        .  49 
The  Red-bellied,  Yellow-bellied,  and  Red-headed  Wood- 
pecker          51 

Nest  destroyed  by  the  Black-snake  .        .        .        .52 

The  Ivory-billed  Woodpecker 53 

The  History  of  one  by  Wilson ib. 

CHAPTER   V.— PLATFORM-BUILDERS. 

Nests  not  necessarily  Hollow 55 

Platform  Nest  of  the  Ring-dove 56 

Passenger  Pigeon  of  America ib. 

Immense  Assemblage  when  Breeding  .  .  .  .57 

Extent  of  their  Colonies ib. 

Astonishing  Flights 58 

Platform  Nests  of  some  Birds  of  Prey  .  .  .  .60 

The  Griffard,  or  Martial  Eagle ib. 

Herons  Platform-builders 61 

Plumes  of  the  Heron  used  for  Ornaments  .  .  .62 

CHAPTER  VI.— BASKET-MAKING  BIRDS. 

Materials  employed  in  Basket-making  .  .  .  .63 

Nest  of  the  Bulfinch ib. 

American  Mocking-bird 64 

Wilson's  Account ib. 

The  Red-winged  Starling 66 

Haunts  and  Nest  described  by  Wilson    .       .       .       .  ib. 


CONTENTS. 


Basket-making  Birds  of  Africa             67 

The  Locust-eating  Thrush ib. 

The  Pensile  Grosbeak 68 

Nest  described  by  Pringle         ......  ib. 

The  Bottle-nested  Sparrow  of  Hindostan    .        .        .        .69 

The  Sociable  Grosbeak 70 

The  Account  of  Vaillant 71 

CHAPTER  VII.— WEAVER  AND  TAILOR  BIRDS. 

The  Weaver  Oriole 72 

Difficulty  of  a  Bird  to  interweave  Materials  .  .  .  74 

American  Weaver  Birds ib. 

The  Kingbird ib. 

The  White-eyed  Fly-catcher ib. 

The  Baltimore  Starling 75 

Interesting  Account  of,  by  Wilson ib. 

Nest  of  the  Tchitrec,  according  to  Vaillant  .  .  .78 

Tailor  Birds 79 

Difficulty  of  a  Bird  to  sew  with  its  Beak  .  .  .  .  ib. 

Wilson's  Account  of  the  Orchard  Starling       .        .        .  ib. 

The  Bonana  Starling        .......  81 

The  Tailor-bird  of  the  East  Indies 82 

CHAPTER    VIII.-FELT-MAKING   BIRDS. 

Varieties  in  the  Materials  employed  by  Felt-making  Birds  83 

Nest  of  the  Goldfinch 84 

Nest  of  the  Pine-pine    ........  ib. 

Vaillant's  Description  of  .        .        .        .        .        .        .85 

Perch-cell  for  the  Cock  Bird ib. 

Inferior  Workmanship  of  Young  Birds     ....  88 

Humming-bird's  Nest  ........  ib. 

Wilson's  Description ib. 

Localities  chosen  by  the  Red-throated  Species        .        .  89 

Structure  of  its  Nest ib. 

Capocier's  Nest,  according  to  Vaillant        .        .        .        .90 

History  of  the  Building  from  the  Commencement  .        .  91 
Assistance  rendered  by  the  Male  Capocier      .        .        .92 

Feltwork  of  the  Nest 94 

CHAPTER    IX.—  CEMENTERS. 

Classifications  of  Birds         .......  95 

Few  Naturalists  have  investigated  the  Cement  of  Birds  .  ib. 

Cemented  Nest  of  the  American  Chimney-swallow  .  .  96 

Wilson's  Account  of  their  Mode  of  Nestling   .        .        .  ib. 

Cement  secreted  by  Glands  in  the  Bird    .        .        .        .97 


VI  CONTENTS. 

Pago 

Edible  Nests  of  the  Salagane 98 

Account  of  these  Nests  by  Bontius  .        ...  ib. 


Accounts  by  Kircher,  Du  Halde,  Kaempfer,  and  others 

Physiological  Researches  of  Sir  E.  Home 

Opinions  of  Dr.  Fleming  and  M.  Lamouroux 

Commercial  History  of  these  Nests 

Manner  of  collecting  them 

Their  various  Prices         .... 

Quantities  Exported 


ib. 
100 

ib. 
101 
102 
103 

ib. 


Conclusion 104 


DOMESTIC    HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 


CHAPTER   X.— HABITS   OF   CLEANLINESS   IN   BIRDS. 

Small  Animals  the  most  Cleanly         ...  .  107 

Rump  Gland  according  to  Willoughby        .  .109 

Arguments  of  Reaumur  against  its  supposed  use  .  110 

Pulverizing  Birds .112 

Birds  fond  of  Washing .113 

Serrated  Claws  of  Herons  and  Nightjars     .        .  .114 

Use  of  the  Tongue  as  a  cleaning  Instrument       .  .115 

Analogy  in  Quadrupeds .  116 

CHAPTER  XL— BIRDS  SOLITARY  AND  GREGARIOUS 

ON   ACCOUNT   OF    FOOD. 

Instance  from  Sheep 116 

Turkey  Buzzard  and  Black  Vulture 119 

Anecdote  from  Wilson 120 

Town  Sparrows 122 

Sparrow,  Crow,  and  Stork  Courts ib. 

Rooks  appoint  Sentinels 124 

Leader  of  the  Cranes 125 

King  of  the  Quails 126 

Origin  of  the  Notion  of  Kingbirds 127 

King  of  the  Vultures ib. 

Eagle  as  King  of  the  Birds 128 

Eagle  Standards  of  Nations 128 

The  Condor ' 129 

The  Wren  a  King  bird 130 

Solitary  Habits  of  the  Jack-snipe 131 

Similar  Habits  of  the  Sand-piper  and  Wagtail     .        .        .132 

The  Sociable  Grosbeak  of  Africa 133 

Anecdote  of  a  Swallow ib 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

Page 
Analogy  from  Insects  and  Quadrupeds        ....  134 

The  Magpie 135 

Birds  Solitary  and  Gregarious  at  different  Seasons     .        .    ib. 
The  Lark 136 

CHAPTER   XII.— PAIRING   OF   BIRDS. 

Extraordinary  Proportion  of  the  Sexes         .        .        .        .137 
Difference  in  the  male  Parents  of  Quadrupeds  and  Birds    .    ib. 

Instance  in  Kooks 138 

The  Capocier  of  Africa 139 

White-headed  Eagle  and  Fish-hawk 141 

Magpie  and  Black-cap          .......    ib. 

The  Goldfinch,  Aberdevine,  and  Canary      ....  144 

The  alleged  Chastity  of  the  Turtle-dove      .        .        .        .147 

Anecdote  of  a  Guinea  Parrot 150 

CHAPTER    XIII.— HATCHING   AND    SHELTERING    OK 
THE   YOUNG. 

Facts  observed  in  Hatching         ......  150 

Artificial  Hatching  in  Egypt ib. 

Egyptian  Egg-oven  or  Marnal ib. 

Sheltering  of  the  Young 154 

Difference  of  small  Birds  from  Poultry        .        .        .        .    ib. 

Training  of  Capons  as  Nurses 155 

Artificial  Mothers 157 

CHAPTER   XIV.— FEEDING  AND   TRAINING   OF  THE 
YOUNG. 

Difference  between  Quadrupeds  and  Birds  in  providing  Food 

for  their  Young      . 160 

Anxiety  and  Care  of  Birds  for  their  Young  .        .        .        .    ib. 
Account  of  the  Rearing  of  a  Brood  of  Tomtits    .        .        .161 

Calculations  of  Mr.  Bradley 162 

Remarks  of  Mr.  Knapp ib. 

Immense  numbers  of  Insects  required  during  the  Breeding 
Season  .        .  .163 


Instance  in  the  American  Wren 

Rooks    

Swallows  .... 
Affection  of  Parent  Birds  . 
The  Gold-crested  Wren 


ib. 
164 
165 
166 

ib. 
168 


Humming-bird 

Training  of  Young  Birds  by  their  Parents        .        .        .  169 
Instinct         ..........    ib. 

Training  of  young  Eagles 170 

A. 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

Page 

The  Stork 171 

Remarks  on  the  common  Opinion ib. 

Swallows  and  Sparrows 172 

Warnings  of  Danger 173 

Anecdote  from  Smellie 174 

Instructions  in  catching  Prey 175 

CHAPTER   XV.— LANGUAGE   OF   BIRDS. 

Language,  as  referring  to  Birds 176 

The  Richel  Bird ,      .        •        •    ib. 

Natural  Notes  of  Alarm ib. 

Theory  of  Darwin        ........  178 

Variety  in  the  Language  of  Birds 180 

Social  Signals  for  congregating 181 

Fables  originating  therefrom 183 

The  Butcher-bird 185 

CHAPTER  XVI.— SONGS  OF  BIRDS. 

Songs  of  Birds  expressive  of  Joy 186 

Female  Birds  rarely  Sing ib. 

Supposed  Cause  of  Singing 187 

Recording '  .    ib. 

Winter  and  Autumnal  Songs 191 

Vocal  Organs  of  Song-birds 192 

The  Wood-thrush  and  Song-thrush     .        .  193 


The  Chaffinch,  Dunnock,  and  Yellow-hammer 
Nightingales  of  the  North  and  South  .        .    ' 
Theory  of  Buffon  refuted      .... 
Wood-thrush  of  America      .... 
American  Song-birds 


195 
ib. 


196 
ib. 
197 


CHAPTER  XVII.— IMITATION  AND  MIMICRY. 

Remaks  of  Chesterfield 199 

Probable  Explanation  of  Mocking  in  Birds  .        .        .        .    ib. 

The  Polyglot-chat 202 

The  Blue-jay 205 

The  American  Mocking-bird 206 

Colonel  O'Kelly's  Gray  Parrot 212 

Testimony  of  the  Rev.  W.  Herbert ib. 

CHAPTER    XVIII.— LONGEVITY   OP    BIRDS. 

Physical  Causes  of  Old  Age 214 

Dis'eases  in  a  State  of  Nature 215 

The  Raven,  the  Pelican,  and  the  Eagle       ....  216 
Fabulous  Accounts  of  the  Eagle 218 


CONTENTS.  IX 

THE    FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

CHAPTER  XIX.— VISION  OF  BIRDS. 

Page 

Vision  of  the  Eagle  and  Lynx 221 

Experiment  of  Scaliger 222 

Daring  of  Larks ib. 

Ointment  of  the  Eyes ib. 

Eyebrush 223 

Eye  of  the  Golden  Eagle 224 

Vision  of  the  Osprey 225 

Experiments  of  Ross  and  Schmidt       .        .        .        .        .226 

The  Carrier  Pigeon 227 

The  Passenger  Pigeon 229 

Peculiar  Habits  in  the  Dog  and  the  Cat       ....  231 

Singular  Journey  of  an  Ass 232 

Circular  Flight  of  Carrion  Birds 233 

Membrane  termed  the  Purse  and  the  Comb         .        .        .  234 
Eyes  of  the  Mole  ( Talpa  Lucida)         •        .        .        .        .236 

Size  of  the  Eye?  in  Birds ib. 

Vision  of  Nocturnal  Birds ib. 

CHAPTER   XX.— HEARING,   SMELL,  AND    TASTE    OP 


Proverbial  quick  Hearing  of  the  Goose  ....  239 

Structure  of  the  Ear 241 

Drum  of  the  Ear ib. 

Imitation  of  Sounds ib. 

Musical  Ear,  according  to  Le  Cat 242 

Illustrations  from  Animals 243 

Smell  in  Birds 246 

Aroma ib. 

Smell  in  Carrion  Birds 247 

Smell  in  Vultures 248 

Turkey  Vulture 249 

Black  Vulture ib. 

The  Raven ib. 

Smell  in  Water  Birds 250 

Examples 251 

Taste  in  Birds 253 

Experiments  of  J.  Rennie 254 

Fruit-eating  Birds ib. 

Nicety  as  to  Food  in  some  Birds ib. 

Tongue  in  Birds  .  . 255 

Tongue  of  the  Pelican .  ib. 

Tongue  of  the  Ostrich 256 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XXL— WALKING  OF  BIRDS. 

Page 

Motions  of  Insects 256 

Footless  Birds 257 

Feet  of  the  Swift ib. 

Feet  of  Swallows 258 

Walk  of  the  Dipper,  the  Coot,  the  Land-rail,  and  other  Birds  259 
Running  of  the  Ostrich         .        .        ...        .        .        .  260 

Tame  Ostriches  at  Podor 262 

Fleetness  of  the  Bustard 263 

The  Flamingo  and  the  Stilt 264 

Climbing  Birds 266 

White's  Remarks  on  the  Walk  of  Birds      .        .        .        .    ib. 
Walk  of  the  Chinese  Jacana ib. 

CHAPTER   XXII— FLIGHT   OF   BIRDS. 

Flying  similar  to  Swimming 268 

Swimming-bladder  of  Fishes ib. 

Air-cells  of  Birds  discovered  by  Harvey       ....  270 

Air-bones 271 

Remarks  of  Sir  Charles  Bell 273 

Wings  and  Tail  as  Organs  of  Flight 276 

CHAPTER  XXIIL— MIGRATION  OF  BIRDS. 

Conjectures  respecting  the  Appearance  and  Disappearance 

of  Birds 279 

Account  of  Swallows  found  on  the  Banks  of  the  Rhine         280 
White's  Investigation  as  to  the  Appearance  and  Disappear 

281 
ib. 
282 

285 
286 
287 
288 
ib. 
290 
291 
293 


ance  of  Swallows 

Opinion  of  Mr.  Bree  on  the  same  Subject 
Swallows  kept  in  Winter     . 
Submersion  of  Swallows  believed  in  by  Linnaeus,  Etmuller 

Cuvier,  and  others 

Anatomical  Argument  against  Submersion 
Migration  to  the  Moon          ...... 

Facfs  proving  the  Migration  of  Birds  to  other  Countries 
Catesby's  Observations  on  the  Migration  of  Birds 

Migration  of  the  Ricebird 

Migration  of  the  American  Passenger  Pigeon 
Migration  of  the  Peterel  and  Bluebird 

Migration  of  the  Gannet 294 

Migration  of  the  Stork 295 

Migration  of  the  Quail 296 

Opinions  as  to  the  Causes  of  Migration       .        .        .        .    ib. 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


CHAPTER  XXIV.— CONCLUSION. 

Page 

Proofs  of  the  Existence  and  Perfections  of  the  Deity  afford- 
ed by  the  Works  of  Nature  ...  299 
Proofs  derived  from  the  Study  of  Ornithology  (  300 
From  the  External  Form  of  Birds  .  .  '  301 
From  their  Internal  Structure  ...  .  ib. 
From  Comparison  of  different  Species  .  302 
From  Adaptation  of  Structure  to  Faculties  ib. 
From  Means  afforded  of  Preserving  Life  .  303 
From  Perfection  of  Vision  in  some  Birds  .  304 
From  Hearing  in  others  ....  305 
Sir  Charles  Bell's  Treatise  on  the  Human  Hand  306 
Multiplicity  and  Diversity  of  animated  Beings  .  307 
Man  alone  capable  of  discovering  the  Hand  of  the  Creator  308 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No.  Page 

1.  Head  of  the  Bank-swallow  (Specimen)          -  -    18 

2.  The  Stormy  Peterel  (Altered  from  Wilson's  American 

Ornithology} 22 

3.  Nests  of  the 'Cliff-swallow  (Bonaparte's  Continuation  of 

Wilson's  American  Ornithology)          -         -         -         -     38 

4.  Window-swallow  and  Nest  (Specimen)         -        -        -    41 

5.  The  Flamingo  (Wilson's  Am.  Ornith.)         ..        -        -    44 

6.  Head  and  Bill  of  the  Toucan  ( WiUoughby't  Ornith.)     •    46 

7.  Nest  of  the  Bulfinch  (Specimen) 64 

8.  The  Mockiag-hird  (Wilson's  Am.  Ornith.)    ...    65 

9.  Nests  of  the  Pensile  Grosbeak  (  Wood's  Zoography)      -    68 

10.  Nest  of  the  Baya  (Forbes's  Oriental  Memoirs)  -       0 

11.  Nests  of  the  Sociable  Grosbeak  (Wood's  Zoography)    -       1 

12.  Baltimore  Oriole  and  Nest  (Audubon)  .... 

13.  Nest  of  the  Tchitrec  (Vaillanfs  Oiseaux  d'Afrique) 

14.  Nest  of  the  Tailor-bird  (Pennant's  Indian  Zoology)        -    82 

15.  Nest  of  the  Pine-pine  (Vaillant's  Oiseaux  d'Afrique)       -     87 

16.  Nest  of  the  Humming-bird  (  Wilson's  Am.  Ornith.)        -    89 

17.  Nest  of  the  Capocier  ( Vaillant's  Oiseaux  d'Afrique)       -     94 

18.  Esculant  Swallow  and  Nest  (Latham's  Gen.  Hist,  of 

Birds) 101 

19.  Night  Heron          -        - 114 

20.  Turkey  Buzzard  and  Black  Vulture      -        -        -        -119 

21.  The  Crane    - 125 

22.  King  of  the  Vultures 127 

23.  Condor  attacking  a  Puma 130 

24.  The  Jack  Snipe 132 

25.  The  White-headed  Eagle  and  Fish-hawk     -        -        -  141 

26.  Transverse  Section  and  Elevation  of  an  Egyptian  Egg- 

oven          152 

27.  Transverse  Section  and  Perspective  Elevation  of  an 

Egyptian  Egg-oven ib. 

28.  Improved  Artificial  Mother 159 

29.  The  Wood-thrush 194 

30.  The  Polyglot  Chat 202 

31.  The  Carrier  Pigeon       -        -        -        -        -        -        -228 

32.  Ostrich  carrying  a  Negro       -        -        -        -        -        -  261 

33.  Himantopus  Melanopterus  (the  Stilt)  and  Duck   -        -  2G5 

34.  The  Jacana  walking  on  the  floating  Leaves  of  the  Water 

Lily 267 

35.  Swimming-bladders  of  the  Dace  and  Conger  Eel         .  269 


INTRODUCTION. 


IN  the  "  Evenings  at  Home"  of  Mrs.  Barbauld  and 
Dr.  Aikin,  one  of  the  few  books  for  children  which 
may  be  read  with  profit  by  persons  of  all  ages,  there 
is  an  instructive  story,  entitled  "Eyes  and  No  Eyes, 
or  the  Art  of  Seeing."  Two  schoolboys,  at  the 
close  of  a  holyday,  set  out  together  to  take  a  sum- 
mer's walk :  one  saunters  listlessly  on,  without  look- 
ing on  the  right  hand  or  on  the  left ;  the  other  pass- 
es nothing  without  finding  some  point  of  interest 
or  amusement.  "  I  have  been,"  says  the  saunterer, 
"  to  Broom  Heath,  and  so  round  by  the  windmill 
upon  Camp  Mount,  and  home  through  the  meadows 
by  the  river's  side ;  and  I  thought  it  very  dull,  for  I 
scarcely  met  with  a  single  person ;  I  had  rather  by 
half  have  gone  along  the  turnpike  road."  "I  have 
had,y  says  the  observer,  "  oh  !  the  pleasantest  walk  ! 
I  went  all  over  Broom  Heath,  and  so  up  to  the  mill 
at  the  top  of  the  hill,  and  then  down  among  the 
green  meadows  by  the  side  of  the  river;  and  I  am 
sure  I  hardly  took  a  step  that  did  not  delight  me ; 
I  have  brought  my  handkerchief  full  of  curiosities 
home." 

In  the  account  which  the  observant  boy  subjoins 
of  his  interesting  ramble  (the  other  had  nothing  to 
tell)  over  the  heath  and  the  meadows,  it  is  remark- 
able that  birds  constitute  more  than  two  thirds  of 
his  story.  He  saw  a  wheatear  hopping  about  a  pile 
of  stones  ;  a  flock  of  lapwings  throwing  their  fantas- 
tic somersets  in  the  air,  and  one  of  them  tumbling 
along  as  if  her  wing  had  been  broken  to  lure  him 
from  her  nest ;  he  saw  a  kingfisher,  with  its  splen- 
did plumage  of  green,  orange,  and  blue,  darting  after 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

fish  in  the  brook,  along  the  margin  of  which  a  fam- 
ily of  sandpipers  were  hunting  down  aquatic  insects, 
while  some  swallows  which  skimmed  along  on  the 
wing  were  ready  to  dart  upon  the  flies  which  es- 
caped from  these  swiftfooted  pedestrians ;  he  saw 
bank-swallows  burrowing  in  the  bank  to  shelter 
their  nests  from  bad  weather  and  worse  enemies;  he 
saw  a  heron  take  her  patient  stand  at  a  bend  of  the 
river  to  watch  for  a  passing  fish,  and,  after  a  suc- 
cessful capture,  fly  off  with  her  prey  to  her  nest  in 
the  woods  ;  and  he  saw  a  troop  of  starlings  as  nu- 
merous as  a  swarm  of  bees ;  the  same  phenome- 
non which  nearly  three  thousand  years  before  had 
afforded  Homer  a  fine  poetical  simile  for  a  troop 
of  fugitive  warriors.  "  So  it  is,"  the  narrative  con- 
cludes ;  "  one  man  walks  through  the  world  with 
his  eyes  open,  and  another  with  them  shut ;  and 
upon  this  difference  depends  all  the  superiority  of 
knowledge  the  one  acquires  above  the  other." 

There  are  few  persons,  even  of  the  well-informed, 
who,  like  the  schoolboy  with  "his  eyes  open," 
take  an  interest  in  such  common  occurrences  as  a 
wheatear  hopping  over  stones,  or  a  swallow  hawk- 
ing for  flies  over  a  brook.  A  taste  for  natural  ob- 
jects must  be  awakened  and  cultivated  before  en- 
joyment can  be  derived  from  the  casual  observation 
(if  study  be  a  term  too  strong  and  repulsive)  of  the 
works  of  creation,  either  in  their  picturesque  and 
poetical  aspects,  or  in  their  beautiful  adaptation  to 
their  various  purposes.  But  when  an  interest  in 
natural  productions  has  been  once  excited,  we  may 
confidently  promise  that  the  sources  of  pleasure  will 
become  exhaustless,  and  every  walk,  however  short, 
will  produce,  like  the  ramble  of  the  curious  school- 
boy, something  which  has  not  been  observed  be- 
fore. 

When  Alexander  Wilson,  the  celebrated  writer 
on  the  Birds  of  the  United  States,  commenced  his 
arduous  task  of  examining  every  bird  of  that  country 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

with  his  own  eyes,  he  complained  that  in  the  works 
of  European  naturalists  he  could  only  find  "  a  few 
vague  and  formal  particulars  of  their  size,  specific 
marks,  &c.,  accompanied  sometimes  with  figured 
representations  that  would  seem  rather  intended  to 
caricature  than  to  illustrate  their  originals."  With 
an  enthusiasm  never  excelled,  this  extraordinary 
man,  who  came  to  the  United  States  a  poor  and  un 
friended  Scotch  weaver,  first  taught  himself,  at  the 
age  of  forty  years,  to  draw  and  colour  after  nature, 
then  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  various  branches 
of  knowledge,  and  having  acquired  the  power  of  wri- 
ting clearly  and  elegantly,  as  well  as  of  depicting  hy 
his  pencil  what  he  saw  in  his  rambles,  set  out  to 
penetrate  through  the  vast  territory  of  the  United 
States,  undeterred  by  forests  and  swamps,  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  painting  and  describing  the  native 
birds.  During  seven  years  in  which  he  prose- 
cuted this  undertaking,  he  travelled  more  than  ten 
thousand  miles,  "  a  solitary,  exploring  pilgrim,"  as 
he  describes  himself.  His  labours  were  rewarded 
with  no  worldly  riches  or  honours,  for  he  had  the 
greatest  difficulty  in  procuring  subscribers  for  his 
splendid  work ;  and  when  a  bookseller  at  last  under- 
took to  print  and  publish  it,  the  only  remuneration 
which  the  author  received  was  a  payment  for  the 
mechanical  labour  of  colouring  his  own  plates.  But 
his  soul  was  set  upon  the  one  object  of  his  life  ;  that 
of  giving  a  complete  account  of  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting portions  of  the  works  of  the  Creator,  as 
far  as  the  vast  continent  of  North  America  afforded 
him  opportunities  for  diligent  examination.  He  pas- 
sionately pusued  his  inquiry  into  the  history  of  birds. 
In  the  preface  to  the  fifth  volume  of  his  book,  he 
says, "  to  me  it  appears,  that  of  all  inferior  creatures, 
Heaven  seems  to  have  intended  birds  as  the  most 
cheerful  associates  of  man ;"  and  he  declares  that 
he  has  "  a  thousand  times  turned,  with  a  delight 
bordering  on  adoration,  to  the  magnificent  reposi- 


INTRODUCTION. 

tory  of  the  woods  and  fields,  the  grand  aviary  of 
nature."  Of  the  difficulties  which  an  accurate  stu- 
dent of  birds  in  general  has  to  encounter,  and  of  the 
particular  difficulties  which  exist  in  wild  and  unfre- 
quented districts,  Wilson  has  presented  so  striking 
and  correct  a  view,  that  we  cannot  deny  our  readers 
the  pleasure  of  reading  one  of  the  most  characteris- 
tic passages  of  this  ardent  naturalist. 

"  On  many  of  his  subjects  it  has  not  been  in  his 
power  to  say  much.  The  recent  discovery  of  some 
birds,  and  the  solitary  and  secluded  habits  of  others, 
have  offered  great  obstacles  to  his  endeavours  in  this 
respect.  But  a  time  is  approaching  when  these  ob- 
stacles will  no  longer  exist.  When  the  population 
of  this  immense  western  republic  will  have  diffused 
itself  over  every  acre  of  ground  fit  for  the  comforta- 
ble habitation  of  man ;  when  farms,  villages,  towns, 
and  glittering  cities,  thick  as  the  stars  of  a  winter's 
evening,  overspread  the  face  of  our  beloved  country, 
and  every  hill,  valley,  and  stream  has  its  favourite 
name,  its  native  flocks,  and  rural  inhabitants ;  then 
not  a  warbler  shall  flit  through  our  thickets  but  its 
name,  its  notes,  and  habits  will  be  familiar  to  all, 
repeated  in  their  sayings,  and  celebrated  in  their 
village  songs.  At  that  happy  period,  should  any 
vestige  or  memory  of  the  present  publication  exist, 
be  it  known  to  our  more  enlightened  posterity,  as 
some  apology  for  the  deficiencies  of  its  author,  that 
in  the  period  in  which  he  wrote,  three  fourths  of  our 
feathered  tribes  were  altogether  unknown  even  to 
the  proprietors  of  the  woods  which  they  frequented ; 
that,  without  patron,  fortune,  or  recompense,  he 
brought  the  greater  part  of  these  from  the  obscurity 
of  ages,  gave  to  each  'a  local  habitation  and  a 
name,'  collected  from  personal  observation  what- 
ever of  their  characters  and  manners  seemed  de- 
serving of  attention ;  and  delineated  their  forms  and 
features,  in  their  native  colours,  as  faithfully  as  he 
could,  as  records,  at  least,  of  their  existence."* 
*  American  Ornithology,  vol.  v.,  p.  8. 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

That  the  present  volume  may  the  better  fulfil  our 
design  of  awakening  and  extending  a  taste  for  ob- 
serving the  beauties  of  nature,  we  have  judged  it 
expedient  to  leave  the  beaten  path  of  our  predeces- 
sors, and  to  ramble  through  fields  and  forests,  un- 
fettered by  system,  but  alive  to  whatever  we  meet 
with  likely  to  interest  for  its  curiosity  or  its  novelty. 

Before  entering  upon  our  immediate  subject,  we 
will  notice  one  of  the  several  methods  devised  by 
naturalists  for  arranging  birds  into  various  groups 
according  to  their  prevalent  habits,  &c.  Such  ar- 
rangements are  not  only  convenient  in  assisting  the 
memory,  but  often  lead  to  the  discovery  of  impor- 
tant facts  connected  with  the  mutual  relations  of 
the  several  groups. 

Quinary  System  of  Classification  of  Birds. 

ORDER  I.,  RAPTORES,  Birds  of  Prey. 

1.  Family,-      -? 

2.  Family,  Vulturida,  Vulture  kind. 

3.  Family,  Falconida,  Falcon  kind. 

4.  Family,  Strigida,  Owl  kind. 

5.  Family, ? 

ORDER  II.,  INSESSORES,  Perchers. 
Tribe  L,  FISSIROSTRES,  Cleft  Bills. 

1.  Family,  Meropida,  Bee-eater  kind. 

2.  Family,  Hirundinidte.  Swallow  kind. 

3.  Family,  Caprimulgidce,  Night-jar  kind. 

4.  Family,  Todida,  Tody  kind. 

5.  Family,  Halcyonida,  Kingfisher  kind. 

Tribe  II.,  DENTIROSTRES,  Toothed  Bills. 

1.  Family,  Muscicapida,  Flycatcher  kind. 

2.  Family,  Laniadte,  Shrike  kind. 

3.  Family,  Merulida,  Thrush  kind. 

4.  Family,  Sylviada,  Warbler  kind. 

5.  Family,  Piprida,  Chatterer  kind. 

B 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

Tribe  III.,  CONIROSTRES,  Conic  Bills. 

1.  Family,  Fringillida,  Finch  kind. 

2.  Family,  Sturnida,  Starling  kind. 

3.  Family,  Corvida.  Crow  kind. 

4.  Family,  Bucerida,  Hornbill  kind. 

5.  Family,  Loxiada,  Grosbeak  kind. 

Tribe  IV.,  SCANSORES,  Climbers. 

1.  Family,  Ramphastida,  Toucan  kind. 

2.  Family,  Psittacida,  Parrot  kind. 

3.  Family,  Picida,  Woodpecker  kind. 

4.  Family,  Certhiadcc,  Creeper  kind. 

5.  Family,  Cuculida,  Cuckoo  kind. 
Tribe  V.,  TENUIROSTRES,  Slender  Bills. 

1.  Family,  Nectariniada  ?  Honey-sucker  kind. 

2.  Family,  Cinnyrida,  Sunbird  kind. 

3.  Family,  TrockilidtK,  Humming-bird  kind. 

4.  Family,  Promeropidx,  Promerops  kind. 

5.  Family,  Meliphagida,  Honey-eater  kind. 

ORDER  III.,  RASORES,  Scratchers. 

1.  Family,  Columbida,  Dove  kind. 

2.  Family,  Phasianida,  Pheasant  kind. 

3.  Family,  Tetraonida,  Grous  kind. 

4.  Family,  Struthionida,  Ostrich  kind. 

5.  Family,  Cracida,  Curassow  kind. 

ORDER  IV.,  GRALLATORES,  Waders. 

1.  Family,  Gruida,  Crane  kind. 

2.  Family,  Ardeida,  Heron  kind. 

3.  Family,  Scolopacida,  Snipe  kind. 

4.  Family,  Rallidce,  Rail  kind. 

5.  Family,  Charadriada,  Plover  kind. 

ORDER  V.,  NATATORES,  Swimmers. 

1.  Family,  Anatida,  Duck  kind. 

2.  Family,  Colymbida,  Diver  kind. 

3.  Family,  Alcada,  Auk  kind. 

4.  Family,  Pelecanida,  Pelican  kind. 

5.  Family,  Larida,  Gull  kind. 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

Mr.  Vigors  farther  divides  these  families  into  five 
sub-families,  the  falcons  (Falconida),  for  example, 
thus: 

1.  Aquilina,  Eagles. 

2.  Aslurina,  Hawks. 

3.  Falconina,  Falcons. 

4.  Buteonina,  Buzzards. 

5.  Milvina,  Kites. 


NATURAL   HISTORY 

OP 

BIRDS. 

THEIR  ARCHITECTURE. 
CHAPTER  I. 

MINING    BIRDS. 

ALTHOUGH  the  notion  that  man  derived  the  first 
hints  of  mechanical  contrivance  from  the  lower  an- 
imals, may  at  first  view  appear  plausible,  it  will  be 
found,  when  traced  circumstantially,  no  more  to  ac- 
cord with  the  actual  origin  of  inventions  than  the 
once  popular  fancy  of  tracing  the  origin  of  all  hu- 
man knowledge  to  the  Iliad  of  Homer,  or,  as  the 
Turks  do,  to  the  Koran  of  Mohammed.  Pope,  who 
was  essentially  the  poet  of  good  sense  and  reason, 
doubtless  believed  that  some  arts  were  thus  acqui- 
red, when  he  said, 

"  Learn  of  the  little  Nautilus  to  sail. 
Spread  the  thin  oar  and  catch  the  driving  gale  ;" 

but  the  fact  itself  appears  very  questionable,  inas- 
much as  the  various  species  of  Nautilus  (Nautilida) 
are  not  only  of  rather  unfrequent  occurrence  even 
where  they  are  indigenous ;  but,  being  confined  to 
the  locality  of  warm  latitudes,  they  could  not  have 
afforded  any  hint  of  boat-building  to  many  tribes, 
such  as  the  Esquimaux  or  the  New-Zealanders.  We 
B2 


18  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

might,  apparently  with  as  good  reason,  attribute  the 
invention  of  paper-making  to  wasps  :  but  the  record- 
ed history  of  paper  would  disprove  the  theory ;  for 
the  manner  in  which  wasps  make  paper  was  not 
known  previous  to  1719,  though  Reaumur  had  en- 
deavoured to  discover  it  for  twenty  years. 

We  cannot  well  conceive  how  it  happened  that 
White  of  Selborne,  usually  so  accurate  in  his  facts, 
should  have  committed  so  many  mistakes  respecting 
the  bank-swallow.  These  mistakes  are  the  more 
unfortunate,  as  they  have  been  implicitly  copied  by 
almost  every  succeeding  writer.  "  Perseverance," 
says  White,  "will  accomplish  anything;  though  at 
first  one  would  be  disinclined  to  believe  that  this 
weak  bird,  with  her  soft  and  tender  bill  and  claws, 
should  ever  be  able  to  bore  the  stubborn  sandbank 
without  entirely  disabling  herself;  yet  with  these 
feeble  instruments  have  I  seen  a  pair  of  them  make 
great  despatch,  and  could  remark  how  much  they 
had  scooped  that  day  by  the  fresh  sand  which  ran 
down  the  bank,  and  was  of  a  different  colour  from 
that  which  lay  loose  and  bleached  in  the  sun."* 

Whoever,  on  the  contrary,  looks  at  the  bill  and 
claws  of  the  bird,  cannot  fail  to  be  convinced,  that, 


Head  of  the  Bank- Swallow. 

so  far  from  being  "  soft  and  tender,"  they  are  more 
than  commonly  hard  and  sharp,  and  admirably  adapt- 
ed for  digging.  The  bill,  we  admit,  is  small,  but  its 
very  shortness  adds  to  its  strength,  as  it  suddenly  ta- 

*  Nat.  Hist.  Selborne,  voL  i.,  p.  229,  ed.  1825. 


THE    BANK-SWALLOW.  19 

pers  to  a  point  like  a  sailor's  marlinspike,  or,  rather, 
like  the  points  of  a  pair  of  fine  compasses  when 
shut.  If  we  compare  this  little  sharp  borer,  as  we 
may  well  call  it,  with  the  caliper-like  mandibles  of 
the  sand-wasps  (Sphecida,  LEACH),  and  of  the  bur- 
rowing bees,  which,  like  this  swallow,  excavate  gal- 
leries proportionable  to  their  size  in  hard  sand,*  we 
are  compelled  to  confess  that  the  bird  is  furnished 
with  the  more  efficient  instrument.  Its  operation 
also  is  very  different.  The  insects  alluded  to  gnaw 
into  the  sand,  or,  rather,  bite  off  a  portion  of  it,  and 
carry  it  out  of  the  hole  in  their  mouths ;  but  the 
bank-swallow,  as  we  have  had  an  opportunity  of 
observing,  works  with  its  bill  shut.  This  fact  our 
readers  may  verify  by  observing  their  operations 
early  in  the  morning,  through  an  opera-glass,  when 
they  begin  in  the  spring  to  form  their  excavations. 
In  this  way  we  have  seen  one  of  these  swallows 
cling  with  its  sharp  claws  to  the  face  of  a  sandbank, 
and  peg  in  its  bill  as  a  miner  would  do  his  pickaxe, 
till  it  had  loosened  a  considerable  portion  of  the  hard 
sand  and  tumbled  it  down  among  the  rubbish  below. 
In  these  preliminary  operations  it  never  makes  use 
of  its  claws  for  digging ;  indeed,  it  is  impossible  it 
could,  for  they  are  indispensable  in  maintaining  its 
position,  at  least  when  it  is  beginning  its  hole.f 

We  have  farther  remarked  that  some  of  this  swal- 
low's holes  are  nearly  as  circular  as  if  they  had  been 
planned  out  with  a  pair  of  compasses,  while  others 
are  more  irregular  in  form  ;  but  this  seems  to  depend 
more  on  the  sand  crumbling  away  than  upon  any 
deficiency  in  the  original  workmanship.  The  bird, 
in  fact,  always  uses  its  own  body  to  determine  the 
proportions  of  the  gallery,  the  part  from  the  thigh 
to  the  head  forming  the  radius  of  the  circle.  It 
does  not  trace  this  out  as  we  would  do,  by  fixing  a 
point  for  the  centre  around  which  to  draw  the  cir- 
cumference. On  the  contrary,  it  perches  on  the 

*  See  Insect  Architecture,  chap,  iii.,  &c.          t  J.  Rennie. 


20  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

circumference  with  its  claws,  and  works  with  its 
bill  from  the  centre  outwards ;  and  hence  it  is  that 
in  the  numerous  excavations  recently  commenced, 
which  we  have  examined,  we  have  uniformly  found 
the  termination  funnel-shaped,  the  centre  being  al- 
ways much  more  scooped  out  than  the  circumfer- 
ence. The  bird  consequently  assumes  all  positions 
while  at  work  in  the  interior,  hanging  from  the  roof 
of  the  gallery  with  its  back  downward  as  often  as 
standing  on  the  floor.  We  have  more  than  once, 
indeed,  seen  a  bank-swallow  wheeling  slowly  round 
in  this  manner  on  the  face  of  a  sandbank  when  it 
was  just  breaking  ground  to  begin  its  gallery.* 

This  manner  of  working,  however,  from  the  cir- 
cumference to  the  centre,  unavoidably  leads  to  irreg- 
ularities in  the  direction,  which  would  not  so  read- 
ily occur  by  reversing  the  procedure;  for  though 
the  radius  formed  by  a  part  of  the  bird's  body  is 
subject  to  little  variation,  yet  the  little  that  does  oc- 
cur from  the  extension  or  contraction  of  the  neck, 
must  tend  to  throw  it  out  of  the  right  line.  Accord- 
ingly, all  the  galleries  are  found  to  be  more  or  less 
tortuous  to  their  termination,  which  is  at  the  depth 
of  from  two  to  three  feet,  where  a  bed  of  loose  hay 
and  a  few  of  the  smaller  breast-feathers  of  geese, 
ducks,  or  fowls  are  spread  with  little  art  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  eggs.f 

It  may  not  be  unimportant  to  remark  also,  that  it 
always  scrapes  out  with  its  feet  the  sand  detached 
by  the  bill ;  but  so  carefully  is  this  performed,  that  it 
never  scratches  up  the  unmined  sand  or  disturbs  the 
plane  of  the  floor,  which  rather  slopes  upward,  and, 
of  course,  the  lodgment  of  rain  is  thereby  prevented. 
The  bank-swallow  is  eminently  a  social  bird ;  since 
it  not  only  always  nestles  in  numerous  colonies,  but 
also  hunts  for  insects  in  troops  of  from  three  to  fifty, 
and,  as  Buffon  correctly  remarks,  associates  freely 
with  other  swallows, 

*  J.  Rennie,  t  J.  Rennie. 


THE    PETREL.  21 

The  bird  which  approaches  the  nearest  to  the  bank- 
swallow  in  its  manner  of  breeding  is  the  stormy  pe- 
trel (Thalassidroma  pelagica,  VIGORS),  the  storm- 
swallow  of  the  Dutch,  whose  great  power  of  wing 
enables  it  to  sweep  over  the  ocean  at  every  distance 
from  land,  and  even  to  weather  the  most  tempestu- 
ous winds,  while  with  its  webbed  feet  and  light  form 
it  can  actually  walk  upon  the  billows  with  as  much 
ease  as  a  sparrow  can  hop  along  a  garden  walk. 
"  It  is,  indeed,  an  interesting  sight,"  says  Wilson, 
"to  observe  these  little  birds,  in  a  gale,  coursing 
over  the  waves,  down  the  declivities,  and  up  the 
ascents  of  the  foaming  surf  that  threatens  to  burst 
over  their  heads,  sweeping  along  the  hollow  troughs 
of  the  sea  as  in  a  sheltered  valley,  and  again  mount- 
ing with  the  rising  billow,  and  jus-t  above  its  surface, 
occasionally  dropping  their  feet,  which,  striking  the 
water,  throw  them  up  again  with  additional  force, 
sometimes  leaping,  with  both  legs  parallel,  on  the 
surface  of  the  roughest  waves  for  several  yards  at 
a  time.  Meanwhile  they  continue  coursing  from 
side  to  side  of  the  ship's  wake,  making  excursions 
far  and  wide  to  the  right  and  to  the  left,  now  a  great 
way  ahead,  and  now  shooting  astern  for  several  hun- 
dred yards,  returning  again  to  the  ship  as  if  she  were  • 
all  the  while  stationary,  though  perhaps  running  at 
the  rate  of  ten  knots  an  hour.  But  the  most  singu- 
lar peculiarity  of  this  bird  is  its  faculty  of  standing, 
and  even  running  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  which 
it  performs  with  apparent  facility.  When  any  grea- 
sy matter  is  thrown  overboard,  these  birds  instantly 
collect  around  it,  facing  to  windward,  with  their 
long  wings  expanded  and  their  webbed  feet  patting 
the  water.  The  lightness  of  their  bodies,  and  the 
action  of  the  wind  on  their  wings,  enable  them  with 
ease  to  assume  this  position.  In  calm  weather  they 
perform  the  same  manoeuvre  by  keeping  their  wings 
just  so  much  in  action  as  to  prevent  their  feet  from 
sinking  below  the  surface."* 

*  American  Ornithology,  vii.,  97. 


22  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 


The  Stormy  Petrel  (Thalassidroma  pelagica,  VIGORS).     Lengthy 
about  six  inches. 

"There  are,"  says  the  same  writer  in  another 
place,  "  few  persons  who  have  crossed  the  Atlantic 
that  have  not  observed  these  solitary  wanderers  of 
the  deep  skimming  along  the  surface  of  the  wild 
and  wasteful  ocean ;  flitting  past  the  vessel  like 
swallows,  or  following  in  her  wake,  gleaning  their 
scanty  pittance  of  food  from  the  rough  and  whirling 
surges.  Habited  in  mourning,  and  making  their  ap- 
pearance generally  in  greater  numbers  previous  to 
or  during  a  storm,  they  have  long  been  fearfully  re- 
garded by  the  ignorant  and  superstitious,  not  only  as 
the  foreboding  .messengers  of  tempests  and  dangers 
to  the  hapless  mariner,  but  as  wicked  agents,  con- 
nected some  how  or  other  in  creating  them.  *  No- 
body,' say  they,  '  can  tell  anything  of  where  they 
come  from,  or  how  they  breed,  though  (as  sailors 
sometimes  say)  it  is  supposed  that  they  hatch  their 
eggs  under  their  wings  as  they  sit  on  the  water.' 
This  mysterious  uncertainty  of  their  origin,  and  the 
circumstances  above  recited,  have  doubtless  given 
rise  to  the  opinion  so  prevalent  among  this  class  of 


THE    PETREL.  23 

men,  that  they  are  in  some  way  or  other  connected 
with  the  prince  of  the  power  of  the  air.  In  every 
country  where  they  are  known,  their  names  have 
borne  some  affinity  to  this  belief.  They  have  been 
called  witches,*  stormy  petrels,  the  Devil's  birds, 
and  Mother  Gary's  chickens,!  probably  from  some 
celebrated  ideal  hag  of  that  name;  and  their  un- 
expected and  numerous  appearance  has  frequently 
thrown  a  momentary  damp  over  the  mind  of  the 
hardiest  seaman.  It  is  the  business  of  the  natural- 
ist and  the  glory  of  philosophy  to  examine  into  the 
reality  of  these  things ;  to  dissipate  the  clouds  of 
error  and  superstition,  wherever  they  darken  and 
bewilder  the  human  understanding,  and  to  illustrate 
nature  with  the  radiance  of  truth. "J 

When  we  inquire,  accordingly,  into  the  unvarnish- 
ed history  of  this  ominous  bird,  we  find  that  it  is  by 
no  means  peculiar  in  presaging  storms,  for  many 
others  of  very  different  families  are  evidently  en- 
dowed with  an  equally  nice  perception  of  a  change 
in  the  atmosphere.  Hence  it  is  that,  before  rain, 
swallows  are  seen  more  eagerly  hawking  for  flies, 
and  ducks  carefully  trimming  their  feathers,  and 
tossing  up  water  over  their  backs,  to  try  whether  it 
will  run  off  again  without  wetting  them.  But  it 
would  be  as  absurd  to  accuse  the  swallows  and 
ducks  on  that  account  of  being  the  cause  of  rain,  as 
to  impute  a  tempest  to  the  spiteful  malice  of  the 
poor  petrels.  Seamen  ought  rather  to  be  thankful 
to  them  for  the  warning  which  their  delicate  feelings 
of  aerial  change  enable  them  to  give  of  an  approach- 
ing hurricane. 

"  As  well,"  says  Wilson,  "  might  they  curse  the 
midnight  lighthouse  that,  starlike,  guides  them  on 

*  Pennant,  Arctic  Zool.,  p.  464. 

t  "  This  name  seems  to  have  been  originally  given  them  by 
Captain  Carteret's  sailors,  who  met  with  these  birds  on  the  coast 
of  Chili.  See  Hawkesworth's  Voyages,  i.,  203." 

t  American  Ornithology,  vii.,  95. 


24  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

their  watery  way ;  or  the  buoy  that  warns  them  of 
the  sunken  rocks  below,  as  this  harmless  wanderer, 
whose  manner  informs  them  of  the  approach  of  the 
storm,  and  thereby  enables  them  to  prepare  for  it." 
The  petrels  are  nocturnal  birds.  When,  therefore, 
they  are  seen  flying  about  and  feeding  by  day,  the 
fact  appears  to  indicate  that  they  have  been  driven 
from  their  usual  quarters  by  a  storm ;  and  hence, 
perhaps,  arose  the  association  of  the  bird  with  the 
tempest.  Though  the  petrels  venture  to  wing  their 
way  over  the  wide  ocean  as  fearlessly  as  our  swal- 
lows do  over  a  millpond,  they  are  not,  therefore, 
the  less  sensible  to  danger ;  and,  as  if  feelingly  aware 
of  their  own  weakness,  they  make  all  haste  to  the 
nearest  shelter.  When  they  cannot  then  find  an 
island  or  a  rock  to  shield  them  from  the  blast,  they 
fly  towards  the  first  ship  they  can  descry,  crowd  into 
her  wake,  and  even  close  under  the  stern,  heedless, 
it  would  appear,  of  the  rushing  surge,  so  that  they 
can  keep  the  vessel  between  them  and  the  unbro- 
ken sweep  of  the  wind.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at, 
in  such  cases,  that  their  low  wailing  note  of  weet, 
weet,  should  add  something  supernatural  to  the  roar 
of  the  waves  and  whistling  of  the  wind,  and  infuse 
an  ominous  dread  into  minds  prone  to  superstition. 
The  popular  opinion  among  sailors,  that  the  pe- 
trels carry  their  eggs  under  their  wings  in  order  to 
hatch  them,  is  no  less  unfounded  than  the  fancy  of 
their  causing  storms  ;  it  is,  indeed,  physically  impos- 
sible. On  the  contrary,  the  petrels  have  been  ascer- 
tained to  breed  on  rocky  shores,  in  numerous  com- 
munities, like  the  bank-swallow,  making  their  nests 
in  the  holes  and  cavities  of  the  rocks  above  the  sea, 
returning  to  feed  their  young  only  during  the  night, 
wir.h  the  superabundant  oily  food  from  their  stom- 
achs. The  quantity  of  this  oily  matter  is  so  con- 
siderable, that,  in  the  Faro  Isles,  they  use  petrels 
for  candles,  with  no  other  preparation  than  drawing 
a  wick  through  the  body  of  the  birds  from  the  mouth 


THE    BURROWING    OWL.  25 

to  the  rump.*  While  nestling,  they  make  a  clutter- 
ing or  croaking  noise,  similar  to  frogs  which  may 
be  heard  during  the  whole  night  on  the  shores  of  the 
Bahama  and  Bermuda  Islands,  and  the  coasts  of  Cuba 
and  Florida,  where  they  abound.  Forster  says  they 
bury  themselves  by  thousands  in  holes  under  ground, 
where  they  rear  their  young  and  lodge  at  night ;  and 
at  New-Zealand,  the  shores  resound  with  the  noise, 
similar  to  the  clucking  of  hens  or  the  croaking  of 
frogs,  which  they  send  forth  from  their  concealment. 
The  burrowing  owl  (Strix  cunicularia,  MOLINA), 
found  in  some  of  the  warmer  districts  of  America, 
is  another  mining  bird.  "  In  the  trans-Mississippian 
territories  of  the  United  States,"  says  Charles  Bona- 
parte, "  the  burrowing  owl  resides  exclusively  in  the 
villages  of  the  marmot  or  prairie  dog,  whose  exca- 
vations are  so  commodious  as  to  render  it  unneces- 
sary that  our  bird  should  dig  for  himself,  as  he  is  said 
to  do  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  where  no  burrow- 
ing animals  exist.  These  villages  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  variable  in  their  extent,  sometimes  covering 
only  a  few  acres,  and  at  others  spreading  over  the 
surface  of  the  country  for  miles  together.  They  are 
composed  of  slightly-elevated  mounds,  having  the 
form  of  a  truncated  cone,  about  two  feet  in  width  at 
base,  and  seldom  rising  as  high  as  eighteen  inches 
above  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  entrance  is  placed 
either  at  the  top  or  on  the  side,  and  the  whole  mound 
is  beaten  down  externally,  especially  at  the  summit, 
resembling  a  much-used  footpath." 

From  the  entrance,  the  passage  into  the  mound 
descends  vertically  for  one  or  two  feet,  and  is  thence 
continued  obliquely  downward  until  it  terminates 
in  an  apartment,  within  which  the  industrious  mar- 
mot constructs,  on  the  approach  of  the  cold  season, 
the  comfortable  cell  for  his  winter's  sleep.  This 
cell,  which  is  composed  of  fine  dry  grass,  is  globular 

*  Pennant,  Brit.  Zool.,  ii.,  434. 

c 


26  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OP   BIRDS. 

in  form,  with  an  opening  at  top  capable  of  admitting 
the  finger;  and  the  whole  is  so  firmly  compacted, 
that  it  might,  without  injury,  be  rolled  over  the  floor. 
It  is  delightful,  during  the  fine  weather,  to  see  these 
lively  little  creatures  sporting  about  the  entrance  of 
their  burrows,  which  are  always  kept  in  the  neatest 
repair,  and  are  often  inhabited  by  several  individu- 
als. When  alarmed,  they  instantly  take  refuge  in 
their  subterranean  chambers  ;  or  if  the  dreaded  dan- 
ger be  not  immediately  impending,  they  stand  near 
the  brink  of  the  entrance,  bravely  barking  and  flour- 
ishing their  tails,  or  else  sit  erect  to  reconnoitre  the 
movements  of  the  enemy.  The  mounds  thrown  up 
by  the  marmot  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  have  an  appearance  of  greater  antiquity 
than  those  observed  on  the  far-distant  plains.  They 
sometimes  extend  to  several  yards  in  diameter,  al- 
though their  elevation  is  trifling,  and,  except  imme- 
diately surrounding  the  entrance,  are  clothed  with 
a  scanty  herbage,  which  always  distinguishes  the 
area  of  these  villages.  Sometimes  several  villages 
have  been  observed  almost  entirely  destitute  of  ve- 
getation; and  recollecting  that  the  marmot  feeds  ex- 
clusively on  grasses  and  herbaceous  plants,  it  seems 
singular  that  this  animal  should  always  choose  the 
most  barren  spot  for  the  place  of  his  abode.  How- 
ever this  may  be  accounted  for,  it  at  least  affords  an 
opportunity  of  beholding  the  approach  of  his  ene- 
mies, and  allows  him  to  seek,  within  the  bosom  of 
the  earth,  that  security  which  he  has  neither  strength 
nor  arms  to  command. 

"in  all  these  prairie-dog  villages,  the  burrowing 
owl  is  seen  moving  briskly  about,  or  else  in  small 
flocks  scattered  among  the  mounds ;  and,  at  a  dis- 
tance, it  may  be  mistaken  for  the  marmot  itself  when 
sitting  erect.  They  manifest  but  little  timidity,  and 
allow  themselves  to  be  approached  sufficiently  close 
for  shooting ;  but  if  alarmed,  some  or  all  of  them 
soar  away,  and  settle  down  at  a  short  distance.  If 


THE    BURROWING    OWL.  27 

farther  disturbed,  their  flight  is  continued  until  they 
are  no  longer  in  view,  or  they  descend  into  their 
dwellings,  whence  they  are  difficult  to  dislodge.  The 
burrows  into  which  these  owls  have  been  seen  to 
descend,  on  the  plains  of  the  river  Plortte,  where 
they  are  most  numerous,  were  evidently  excavated 
by  the  marmot,  whence  it  has  been  inferred  by  Say 
that  they  were  either  common,  though  unfriendly 
residents  of  the  same  habitation,  or  that  our  owl 
was  the  sole  occupant  of  a  burrow  acquired  by  right 
of  conquest.  The  evidence  of  this  was  clearly  pre- 
sented by  the  ruinous  condition  of  the  burrows  ten- 
anted by  the  owl,  which  were  frequently  caved  in, 
and  their  sides  channelled  by  the  rains,  while  the 
neat  and  well-preserved  mansion  of  the  marmot 
showed  the  active  care  of  a  skilful  and  industrious 
owner. 

"  We  have  no  evidence,"  adds  Bonaparte,  "  that 
the  owl  and  marmot  habitually  resort  to  one  bur- 
row ;  yet  we  are  well  assured  by  Pike  and  others, 
that  a  common  danger  often  drives  them  into  the 
same  excavation  where  lizards  and  rattlesnakes  also 
enter  for  concealment  and  safety.  Throughout  the 
region  traversed  by  the  expedition,  the  marmot  was 
unquestionably  the  artificer  of  the  burrow  inhabited 
by  the  owl."* 


CHAPTER  II. 

GROUND    BUILDERS. 

THE  essential  requisites  of  a  bird's  nest  are  warmth 
and  security,  a  certain  degree  of  heat  being  indis- 
pensable for  hatching  the  eggs  and  fostering  the 
*  C.  L.  Bonaparte,  Amer.  Ornith.   vol   i.,  p.  72. 


28  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

young,  while  security  from  enemies  and  accidents 
is  no  less  necessary  for  successfully  rearing  the 
brood.  The  various  means  resorted  to  for  fulfilling 
these  conditions  afford  numerous  and  interesting  il- 
lustrations of  this  delightful  part  of  natural  history, 
and  have  given  rise  to  much  curious  discussion 
among  those  philosophers  who  severally  ascribe  the 
building  operations  of  birds  to  foresight  and  reason; 
to  what  is  termed  instinct,  meaning  mechanism 
without  intelligence  in  the  agent ;  or  to  immediate 
impulses  from  the  great  creative  mind  of  the  uni- 
verse. Without  entering  into  the  intricacies  of  these 
discussions,  we  shall  enumerate  a  series  of  facts 
from  which  inferences  may  be  drawn  by  the  advo- 
cates of  the  various  systems  which  attempt  to  ex- 
plain the  more  mysterious  operations  of  the  lower 
animals. 

Though  the  ground  is  proverbially  termed  "  cold," 
it  requires  but  slight  observation  to  prove  that  the 
popular  notion  is  not  strictly  correct,  and,  conse- 
quently, that  the  great  number  of  birds  which  select 
it  for  their  nests  are  not  so  foolish  as  might  at  first 
view  appear.  The  researches  of  Saussure,  and,  more 
recently,  of  M.  Cordier,  prove  that  at  considerable 
depths  the  earth  does  not  vary  much  in  tempera- 
ture ;  and,  without  having  recourse  to  the  tables 
drawn  up  from  thermometrical  observations,  there 
are  two  circumstances  well  known  to  everybody, 
which  prove  that  the  ground  cannot,  with  strict  jus- 
tice, be  termed  cold.  In  a  morning,  when  the  fields 
are  covered  with  hoarfrost,  it  may  be  observed  to 
be  much  longer  on  some  places  than  on  others ;  and 
if  the  nature  of  the  substances  on  which  it  remains 
longest  be  examined,  they  will  uniformly  be  found 
to  be  such  as  are  considered  by  chymists  bad  con- 
ductors of  heat,  such  as  wood,  cowdung,  and  hay; 
while  on  the  bare  ground,  particularly  in  pathways, 
where  it  is  hard  and  beaten,  and,  consequently,  better 
fitted  to  conduct  heat,  the  hoarfrost  is  always  first 


GROUND    BUILDERS.  29 

exhaled,  because  it  is  sooner  reached  by  the  heat 
emanating  from  the  interior  of  the  earth.  The  ex- 
istence of  this  interior  heat  is  still  more  obviously 
proved  by  the  water  of  springs,  which,  on  its  first 
issuing  through  the  sand,  will  not  freeze,  even  in 
severe  frost,  till  it  is  cooled  down  by  exposure  to 
the  cold  atmosphere,  when  it  freezes  as  readily  as 
the  water  of  the  next  pond. 

These  facts  will  be  found,  as  we  proceed,  to  be 
closely  connected  with  the  subject  of  birds'  nests 
built  on  the  ground ;  and  on  that  account  we  may 
also  mention  that  the  interior  temperature  of  the 
earth  is  more  uniform  than  the  surface,  which  is 
exposed  to  the  alternate  influence  of  the  sun  and 
the  cold  air  of  the  night ;  a  circumstance  of  no  little 
importance  in  the  hatching  of  eggs.  That  birds 
have  a  very  correct  notion  of  the  requisite  temper- 
ature for  hatching,  is  strikingly  proved  by  the  os- 
trich (Struthio  camelus),  and  several  sea  birds,  which 
only  sit  on  their  eggs  during  the  night  or  in  moist  or 
gloomy  weather,  and  at  other  times  leave  them  al- 
together to  the  influence  of  the  sunshine. 

In  by  far  the  greater  number  of  instances,  dryness 
seems  to  be  a  no  less  indispensable  condition  than 
warmth.  But  some  birds  are  known  to  make  use 
of  moist  rather  than  dry  materials  for  their  nests. 
This  is  well  exemplified  in  a  bird  peculiar  to  Amer- 
ica, called  by  Wilson  the  willet  (Totanus  semipalma- 
tus,  LATH.),  from  its  reiterated  shrill  cry  of  Pill-will- 
willet,  Pill-will- ivillet,  which  is  loud  enough  to  be 
heard  at  the  distance  of  half  a  mile.  This  bird  is 
very  similar  to  the  snipes,  but  may  be  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  them  by  short  webs  at  the  joinings 
of  the  toes.  The  willets  generally  begin  to  lay 
about  the  twentieth  of  May,  which  is  said,  from 
some  unknown  cause,  to  be  two  weeks  later  than  it 
was  twenty  years  ago.  "  Their  nests,"  says  Wil- 
son, "  are  built  on  the  ground,  among  the  grass  of 
the  salt  marshes,  pretty  well  towards  the  land  or 
C2 


30  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

cultivated  fields,  and  are  composed  of  wet  rushes 
and  coarse  grass,  forming  a  slight  hollow  or  cavity 
in  a  tussock.  This  nest  is  gradually  increased,  du- 
ring the  period  of  laying  and  sitting,  to  the  height 
of  five  or  six  inches.  The  eggs  are  usually  four  in 
number,  very  thick  at  the  great  end,  and  tapering  to 
a  narrower  point  at  the  other  than  those  of  our  barn- 
door fowls.  In  every  instance  which  has  come  un- 
der my  observation,  they  are  placed  during  incuba- 
tion in  an  almost  upright  position,  with  the  large 
end  uppermost ;  and  this  appears  to  be  the  common 
practice  of  several  other  species  of  birds  that  breed 
in  these  marshes."* 

The  proceedings  of  the  willet,  and  such  birds  as 
thus  make  choice  of  moist  materials  for  their  nests, 
among  which  the  song-thrush  may  be  mentioned, 
are  strikingly  contrasted  with  those  of  several  other 
birds  which  also  build  on  the  ground.  We  allude 
here  to  water-birds,  chiefly  of  the  duck  family.  The 
long-tailed  duck  (Clangula  glacialis,  FLEMING),  for 
example,  an  occasional  visitant  of  England,  which 
breeds  in  Greenland,  Hudson's  Bay,  and  other  nor- 
thern parts,  makes  her  nest  among  the  grass  near 
the  sea,  lining  it  with  down  plucked  from  her  own 
breast,  equally  fine  and  valuable  with  the  well- 
known  eider-down,  though  it  cannot  be  procured  in 
such  quantity.! 

It  is  not  generally  known,  we  believe,  that  any 
other  bird  thus  robs  herself  of  her  own  covering, 
from  maternal  affection,  besides  the  eider-duck 
(Somateria  mollissima,  LEACH),  whose  celebrity  re- 
quires us  to  bestow  upon  it  particular  attention.  For 
size  it  approaches  nearer  to  the  goose  than  the  duck, 
being  above  two  feet  long,  and  weighing  about  seven 
pounds.  Its  native  country  extends  from  about  45° 
north  to  the  highest  arctic  latitudes  hitherto  ex- 
plored, both  in  Europe  and  America ;  the  Farn 
Isles,  off  the  coast  of  Northumberland,  and  the 
*  Wilson's  Amer.  Ornith.,  vii.,  28.  |  Ibid.,  54. 


THE    EIDER-DUCK.  31 

rocky  islets  beyond  Portland,  in  the  state  of  Maine, 
being  the  southern  boundary  of  their  breeding 
places  ;  but  they  are  only  very  plentiful  in  Behring's 
Straits,  Labrador,  Greenland,  Iceland,  and  other  arc- 
tic regions. 

According  to  M.  T.  Brunnich,  who  wrote  an  ex- 
press treatise  on  the  natural  history  of  the  eider- 
duck,  their  first  object,  after  pairing,  is  to  procure  a 
suitablefplace  for  their  nest,  preferring  the  shelter 
of  a  juniper  bush  where  it  can  be  had,  and,  where 
there  is  no  jumper,  contenting  themselves  with  tufts 
of  seagrass  (Arundo  arenaria,  Poa  maritima,  Elymus 
arenarius,  &c.),  bundles  of  seaweed  cast  up  by  the 
tide,  the  crevices  of  rocks,  or  any  hollow  place 
which  they  can  find.  Some  of  the  Icelandic  pro- 
prietors of  breeding  grounds,  in  order  to  accommo- 
date them,  cut  out  holes  in  rows  on  'the  smooth 
sloping  banks,  where  they  would  not  otherwise 
build,  but  of  which  they  gladly  take  possession 
when  thus  scooped  out.*  It  is  not  a  little  remark- 
able that,  like  several  other  seabirds,  they  almost 
always  select  small  islands,  their  nests  being  seldom, 
if  ever,  found  on  the  shores  of  the  mainland,  or  even 
of  a  large  island.  The  Icelanders  are  so  well  aware 
of  this,  that  they  have  expended  a  great  deal  of  la- 
bour in  actually  forming  islands,  by  separating  from 
the  main  island  certain  promontories  joined  to  it  by 
narrow  isthmuses. 

The  reason  of  this  preference  of  islands  seems  to 
be  security  from  the  intrusion  of  dogs,  cattle,  and 
other  land  animals,  to  whose  vicinity  they  have  so 
great  an  aversion,  that  the  Icelanders  are  careful  to 
remove  these,  as  well  as  cats,  to  a  distance  from 
their  settlements. 

Both  the  male  and  the  female  eider-ducks  work  in 

concert  in  building  their  nest,  laying  a  rather  coarse 

foundation  of  drift  grass,  dry  tangle,  and  seaweed, 

which  is  collected  in  some  quantity.     Upon  this 

*  Hooker's  Tour  in  Iceland,  p.  53. 


32  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

rough  mattress  the  female  eider  spreads  a  bed  of 
the  finest  down  plucked  from  her  own  breast,  and 
by  no  means  sparingly,  but,  as  Brunnich  informs  us, 
heaping  it  up,  so  as  to  form  a  thick  puffed  roll  quite 
round  the  nest.  When  she  is  compelled  to  go  in 
quest  of  food  after  beginning  to  sit,  she  carefully 
turns  this  marginal  roll  of  down  over  the  eggs  to 
keep  them  warm  till  her  return.  It  is  worthy  of  re- 
mark, that  though  the  eider-duck  lays  only  five  or  six 
eggs,  "  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  more  than  even 
ten  and  upward  in  the  same  nest  occupied  by  two 
females  which  live  together  in  perfect  concord  ;"* 
a  circumstance,  however,  of  which  we  shall  meet 
with  other  instances  as  we  proceed. 

The  quantity  of  down  in  each  nest  is  said  by  Van 
Troil  to  be  about  half  a  pound,  which,  by  cleaning, 
is  reduced  one  half.  By  Pennant,  who  examined  the 
eiders'  nests  in  the  Farn  islands,  off  Northumberland, 
it  is  only  estimated,  when  cleaned,  at  three  quarters 
of  an  ounce,  and  this  was  so  elastic  as  to  fill  the  crown 
of  the  largest  hat.f  The  difference  of  quantity  in 
these  two  accounts,  theoretically  ascribed  by  the 
translators  of  Buffon  to  difference  of  climate,  may 
have  arisen  from  the  one  being  the  first,  and  the 
other  the  second  or  third  nest  of  the  mother  duck  : 
for  if  the  first  nest  be  plundered  of  its  down,  though 
she  immediately  builds  a  second,  she  cannot  furnish 
it  with  the  same  quantity  as  before ;  and,  if  forced 
to  build  a  third  time,  having  then  stripped  her  breast 
of  all  she  could  spare,  the  male  is  said  to  furnish 
what  is  wanting,  which  is  recognised  as  being  con- 
siderably whiter  than  the  female's.  When  the  nest 
is  not  robbed,  it  is  said  that  he  furnishes  none. 

The  extraordinary  elasticity  of  the  down  appears 
from  the  fact  we  have  mentioned  of  three  quarters 
of  an  ounce  filling  a  large  hat.  It  is  worthy  of  no- 
tice, however,  that  it  is  only  the  down  taken  from 

*  Van  Troll's  Letters  on  Iceland. 

t  Pennant,  Tour  in  Scotland,  8vo.  edit.,  p.  36. 


THE    REDBREAST.  33 

the  nests  which  has  this  great,  elasticity,  for  what  is 
taken  from  the  dead  birds  is  much  inferior,  being,  as 
Pontoppidan  says,  "  fat,  subject  to  rot,  and  far  from 
as  light  as  what  the  female  plucks  to  form  a  bed  for 
its  young."*  The  cause  of  the  difference  has  been 
attributed  either  to  the  down  being  in  great  perfec- 
tion at  the  breeding  season,  or  to  the  bird's  plucking 
only  her  finest  and  most  delicate  feathers. 

The  down  taken  from  the  nests  becomes  a  valu- 
able article  of  commerce,  being  sold,  when  cleaned, 
for  three  rix  dollars  (two  dollars  seventy-five  cents) 
a  pound.  In  1750,  the  Icelandic  company  sold  down 
amounting  in  value  to  about  $4000,  besides  what  was 
sent  directly  to  Gluckstadt.  Little  or  none  of  it  is 
used  in  the  country  where  it  is  found.  In  that  rough 
climate,  as  Buffon  remarks,  the  hardy  hunter,  clothed 
in  a  bearskin  cloak,  enjoys  in  his  solitary  hut  a 
peaceful,  perhaps  a  profound  sleep,  while,  in  polish- 
ed nations,  the  man  of  ambition,  stretched  upon  a 
bed  of  eider-down  and  under  a  gilded  roof,  seeks  in 
vain  to  procure  the  sweets  of  repose. 

The  example  of  the  eider-duck,  in  plucking  the 
down  from  her  body  in  order  to  keep  her  offspring 
warm,  is  not  unmatched  in  the  animal  world. 

The  redbreast  (Sylvia  rubecula)  is  a  very  early 
builder,  and  usually  selects  for  its  nest  a  shallow 
cavity  among  grass  or  moss,  in  a  bank,  or  at  the 
root  of  a  tree,  sometimes  in  the  hole  of  a  tree  in  a 
wood  or  secluded  lane,  far  distant  from  its  winter 
haunts  about  the  cottage  door  or  the  farmyard. 

A  pair  of  redbreasts  in  Kincardineshire,  Scotland, 
from  some  accidental  cause,  began  to  build  so  early 
as  Christmas  ;  but  seeming  to  be  well  aware  that 
the  woods  would  not  afford  them  either  shelter  or 
subsistence  at  this  inclement  season,  particularly  so 
far  north,  they  made  choice  of  a  greenhouse.  Not 
finding  a  suitable  place  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
greenhouse,  they  selected  a  hole,  as  a  house-spar- 
row would  have  done,  in  the  corner  of  the  ceiling; 
*  Pontoppidan,  Nat.  Hist,  of  Norway. 


34  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF  BIRDS. 

and  care  being  taken  to  feed  them  as  well  as  to  give 
them  no  molestation,  they  succeeded  in  rearing  a 
brood  of  young,  to  the  wonder  of  all  who  witnessed 
the  circumstance. 

A  singularly  fanciful  account  of  the  redbreast's 
nest  is  given  by  Turner,  an  English  naturalist,  who 
wrote  so  long  ago  as  the  sixteenth  century.  "  The 
robinet,"*  says  he,  "  which  hath  a  red  breast  both 
in  summer  and  in  winter,  nestleth  as  far  as  possible 
from  towns  and  cities,  in  the  thickest  copses  and 
orchards,  after  this  manner  :  when  she  hath  found 
many  oak  leaves,  she  constructed  a  nest,  and  when 
built,  covereth  it  with  arch  work,  leaving  only  one 
way  for  entrance,  for  which  purpose  she  builds  with 
leaves  a  long  porch  before  the  doorway,  the  which 
when  going  out  to  feed,  she  covereth  up  with  leaves." 
But  as  if  somewhat  skeptical  himself  respecting  his 
own  description,  he  subjoins,  "  these  things  which  I 
now  write  I  observed  when  a  boy,  though  I  do  not 
deny  that  she  may  nidificate  otherwise ;  and  if  any 
one  curious  in  such  matters  hath  observed  her  build 
differently,  it  will  be  a  gratification  to  me  to  learn 
the  same  :  I  have  related  candidly  that  which  I  have 
seen." 

There  can  be  scarcely  a  doubt,  we  think,  that  Tur- 
ner in  this  instance  was  deceived  by  some  dreaming 
fancy ;  yet  is  it  afterward  copied  by  almost  every 
ornithologist,  from  Aldrovand  and  Willoughby  down 
to  Buffon  and  Bewick.  After  the  nest  is  built,  Wil- 
lougaby  tells  us,  the  bird  often  strews  it  with  leaves, 
preserving  only  a  narrow  winding  entrance  under 
the  heap,  and  even  shuts  the  mouth  of  it  with  a  leaf 
when  she  goes  abroad.  The  only  circumstance 
which  could  have  led  to  such  a  mistake  is,  that  as 
the  redbreast  makes  its  nest  at  the  root  of  a  tree,  a 
few  leaves  might  have  been  accidentally  drifted  over 
the  entrance  by  the  wind ;  for  among  some  hundreds 

*  Drayton  and  other  old  poets  call  the  redbreast  Robinet. 


VARIATIONS    IN    BUILDING.  35 

of  these  nests  which  we  have  seen,  we  never  met 
with  one  covered  in  at  top  with  any  sort  of  material 
piled  up  for  the  purpose  by  the  bird,  though  we  have 
often  observed  a  tuft  of  grass,  a  layer  of  natural 
grown  moss,  or  part  of  the  root  of  a  tree  projecting 
over  it. 

Some  ground  builders,  which  collect  few  or  no 
materials,  are  remarkable  for  the  care  they  display 
in  selecting  a  convenient  locality.  In  the  nest  of  a 
peahen,  for  example,  which  we  lately  examined, 
we  observed  that  the  mother  bird  had  taken  care  to 
choose  a  very  sheltered  spot,  the  nest  being  over- 
hung by  a  low  branch  of  a  spruce  fir,  which  was 
suspended  over  it  like  an  umbrella,  and  completely 
protected  it  from  rain  and  dew.  Another  circum- 
stance was  still  more  remarkable.  It  is  well  known 
that  female  birds  for  the  most  part  wear  off  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  feathers  from  their  breasts 
by  their  frequent  movements  in  turning  their  eggs. 
Now,  as  her  eggs  were  placed  on  the  bare  earth,  no 
grass  growing  under  the  drip  of  the  spruce  branch, 
the  breast  of  our  peahen  must  soon  have  been  rub- 
bed bare  of  feathers.  Foreseeing  this  event,  as  it 
would  appear,  the  careful  creature  prepared  a  soft 
cushion  of  dry  grass,  upon  which  her  breast  might 
rest.  This  cushion  was  placed  on  the  most  exposed 
side  of  the  nest,  but  no  part  of  it  under  the  eggs 
themselves. 


CHAPTER  III. 

MASON    BIRDS. 

WHEN  the  least  civilized  savages  take  possession 
of  a  natural  cavern  or  the  hollow  of  a  tree  to  shel- 


36  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

ter  them  from  the  weather,  the  indolence  of  that 
state  in  which  the  ingenuity  of  man  has  not  been 
called  forth  by  thought  and  experience,  prevents 
them  from  constructing  any  additional  convenience 
in  the  form  of  a  door.  Even  when  they  take  the 
trouble  of  making  a  wigwam  of  boughs,  their  sub- 
stitute for  a  door  consists  in  narrowing  the  entrance 
so  that  it  will  only  allow  of  their  crawling  in  on  all 
fours,  like  their  fellow  foresters,  the  bears  and  foxes. 
It  is  only  after  the  dawn  of  refinement,  when  inven- 
tion has  been  stimulated  by  the  desire  of  comfort, 
that  we  meet  with  doors  curiously  and  tastefully 
constructed,  possessing  certain  architectural  pro- 
portions, as  well  as  adapted  to  the  character  of  the 
climate.  Among  the  lower  animals,  the  contri- 
vance of  a  door  of  any  description  is  of  rare  occur- 
rence, and  is,  we  believe,  only  to  be  found  among  a 
peculiar  family  of  spiders  (Mygalida),  But  all  ani- 
mals, man  included,  are  soon  taught  by  experience, 
that  protection  from  enemies  is  no  less  necessary 
than  shelter  from  the  inclemencies  of  weather.  The 
Gothic  castle  and  the  walled  city  have  low  and  nar- 
row portals,  opposed  to  the  entrance  of  a  hostile 
army;  and  the  Indian  contracts  or  barricades  his 
hut  to  prevent  his  being  devoured  by  nocturnal  beasts 
of  prey. 

It  is  probably  both  for  protection  from  enemies 
and  for  shelter  from  the  weather,  that  the  nut-hatch 
(Sitta  Europaa)  forms  the  barricade  to  her  nest, 
which  has  suggested  the  preceding  observations. 
In  France,  the  bird  is  termed  the  mason  woodpeck- 
er. The  older  naturalists  tell  us  that  this  little  ma- 
son selects  for  breeding  the  hole  of  a  tree,  and  if 
this  be  larger  than  she  requires,  she  narrows  the  en- 
trance with  earth  and  mud  so  neatly  kneaded  that  a 
potter  could  not  do  it  more  dexterously.  Buffon 
adds,  that  she  strengthens  the  fabric  of  soft  earth 
with  small  stones,  a  device  which  we  have  observed 


THE   CLIFF-SWALLOW.  37 

practised  by  a  species  of  the  mason  bee  (Anthophora 
retusa,  LEACH). 

As  there  is  no  masonry  nor  plastering  made  use 
of  in  the  interior  of  the  nut-hatch's  nest,  we  might 
have  been  inclined  to  consider  the  preceding  account 
as  purely  fanciful.  But  we  have  the  testimony  of  a 
recent  observer,  not  only  to  the  fact  of  the  clay  bar- 
ricade, but  a  confirmatory  circumstance  not  a  little 
interesting  and  curious.  Colonel  Montagu  discov- 
ered that  if  the  clay  barrier  at  the  entrance  of  the 
hole  be  destroyed  while  there  are  eggs  in  the  nest, 
it  is  speedily  rebuilt  to  prevent,  possibly,  the  unwel- 
come intrusion  of  the  woodpecker,  and  other  birds 
of  superior  size  and  strength,  which  build  in  similar 
situations.  It  appears  to  us  no  less  probable,  that 
the  wall  may  be  constructed  to  prevent  the  unfledg- 
ed young  from  tumbling  out  of  the  nest  when  they 
begin  to  stir  about ;  for  all  young  birds  become  very 
restless  as  they  approach  the  period  when  they  ac- 
quire the  power,  as  well  as  the  desire,  for  rapid 
movement.  The  callow  brood  of  most  nests  have 
the  same  impatience  that  distinguishes  children  who 
are  about  to  use  their  legs  :  they  pant  to  "  imp  their 
young  wings." 

The  cliff-swallow  (Hirundo  fulva,  VIEILLOT)  is  stri- 
kingly characterized  by  having  an  even  and  not  a 
forked  tail,  like  its  congeners.  Instead  of  a  white 
rump,  also,  like  our  window-swallow,  it  has  an  iron- 
brown  one,  and  the  same  colour,  but  of  a  darker 
shade,  under  the  chin,  where  our  chimney-swallow 
is  red.  The  upper  part  of  the  body,  however,  has 
the  same  glossy  violet  black,  and  the  wings  the  same 
deep  brown  as  the  former.  "  This  active  little  bird," 
says  Bonaparte.*  "  is,  like  its  congeners,  almost  con- 
tinually on  the  wing,  and  feeds  on  flies  and,  other 
insects  while  performing  its  aerial  evolutions.  Its 
note  is  different  from  that  of  other  swallows,  and 
may  be  well  imitated  by  rubbing  a  moistened  cork 
*  See  Bonaparte's  Birds. 
D 


38 


THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 


around  the  neck  of  a  bottle.  The  species  arrive  in 
the  west,  from  the  south,  early  in  April,  and  imme- 
diately begin  to  construct  their  symmetrical  nests, 
which  are  perfected  by  their  united  and  industrious 
efforts.  At  the  dawn  of  day  they  commence  their 
labours  by  collecting  the  necessary  mud  from  the 
borders  of  the  rivers  and  ponds  adjacent,  and  they 
persevere  in  their  work  until  near  midday,  when 
they  relinquish  it  for  some  hours,  and  amuse  them- 
selves by  sporting  in  the  air,  pursuing  insects,  &c. 
As  soon  as  the  nest  acquires  the  requisite  firmness, 
it  is  completed,  and  the  female  begins  to  deposite  her 
eggs,  four  in  number,  which  are  white  spotted  with 
dusky  brown.  The  nests  are  extremely  friable,  and 
will  readily  crumble  to  pieces ;  they  are  assembled 
in  communities,  as  represented  in  the  engraving. 


Nest  of  the  Cliff  Swallow  (Hirundo  fulva,  VlEILLOT). 

In  unsettled  countries,  these  birds  select  a  sheltered 
situation,  under  a  projecting  ledge  of  rock;  but  in 
civilized  districts,  they  have  already  evinced  a  pre- 


THE    CLIFF-SWALLOW.  39 

dilection  for  the  abodes  of  man,  by  building  against' 
the  walls  of  houses,  immediately  under  the  eaves  of 
the  roof,  though  they  have  not  in  the  least  changed 
their  style  of  architecture.  A  nest  from  the  latter 
situation  is  now  before  me :  it  is  hemispherical,  five 
inches  wide  at  its  truncated  place  of  attachment  to 
the  wall,  from  which  it  projects  six  inches,  and  con- 
sists exclusively  of  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay,  lined 
on  the  inside  with  straw  and  dried  grass,  negligently 
disposed  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs.  The  whole 
external  surface  is  roughened  by  the  projection  of 
the  various  little  pellets  of  earth  which  compose  the 
substance.  The  entrance  is  near  the  top,  rounded, 
projecting,  and  turning  downward,  so  that  the  nest 
may  be  compared  to  a  chymist's  retort,  flattened  on 
the  side  applied  to  the  wall,  and  with  the  principal 
part  of  the  neck  broken  off.  So  great  is  the  indus- 
try of  these  interesting  little  architects,  that  this 
massive  and  commodious  structure  is  sometimes 
completed  in  the  course  of  three  days."* 

White  of  Selborne  thus  describes  the  building 
process  of  the  window-swallow,  or  martin  (Hirundo 
urlica).  "About  the  middle  of  May,"  he  says,  "if 
the  weather  be  fine,  the  martin  begins  to  think  in 
earnest  of  providing  a  mansion  for  its  family.  The 
crust  or  shell  of  this  nest  seems  to  be  formed  of 
such  dirt  or  loam  as  comes  most  readily  to  hand, 
and  is  tempered  and  wrought  together  with  little 
bits  of  broken  straws  to  render  it  tough  and  tena- 
cious. As  this  bird  often  builds  against  a  perpen- 
dicular wall  without  any  projecting  ledge  under,  it 
requires  its  utmost  eiforts  to  get  the  first  foundation 
firmly  fixed,  so  that  it  may  safely  carry  the  super- 
structure. On  this  occasion,  the  bird  not  only 
clings  with  its  claws,  but  partly  supports  itself  by 
strongly  inclining  its  tail  against  the  wall,  making 
that  a  fulcrum ;  and,  thus  steadied,  it  works  and 
plasters  the  materials  into  the  face  of  the  brick  or 
*  Bonaparte,  Amer.  Ornith.,  i.,  67. 


40  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OP    BIRDS. 

stone.  But,  then,  that  this  work  may  not,  while  it 
is  soft  and  green,  pull  itself  down  by  its  own  weight, 
the  provident  architect  has  prudence  and  forbearance 
enough  not  to  advance  her  work  too  fast ;  but,  by 
building  only  in  the  morning,  and  by  dedicating  the 
rest  of  the  day  to  food  and  amusement,  gives  it  suf- 
ficient time  to  dry  and  harden.  About  half  an  inch 
seems  to  be  a  sufficient  layer  for  a  day.  Thus  care- 
ful workmen,  when  they  build  mud  walls  (inform- 
ed at  first,  perhaps,  by  this  little  bird),  raise  but  a 
moderate  layer  at  a  time,  and  then  desist,  lest  the 
work  should  become  top-heavy,  and  so  be  ruined  by 
its  own  weight.  By  this  method,  in  about  ten  or 
twelve  days,  is  formed  a  hemispheric  nest  with  a 
small  aperture  towards  the  top,  strong,  compact, 
and  warm,  and  perfectly  fitted  for  all  the  purposes 
for  which  it  was  intended. 

"  The  shell  or  crust  of  the  nest  is  a  sort  of  rustic- 
work  full  of  knobs  and  protuberances  on  the  outside  : 
nor  is  the  inside  of  those  that  I  have  examined 
smoothed  with  any  exactness  at  all ;  but  is  rendered 
soft  and  warm,  and  fit  for  incubation,  by  a  lining  of 
small  straws,  grasses,  and  feathers ;  and  sometimes 
by  a  bedding  of  moss  interwoven  with  wool.  They 
are  often  capricious  in  fixing  on  a  nesting-place,  be- 
ginning many  edifices  and  leaving  them  unfinished ; 
but  when  once  a  nest  is  completed  in  a  sheltered 
place,  after  so  much  labour  is  bestowed  in  erecting 
a  mansion,  as  nature  seldom  works  in  vain,  the  same 
nest  serves  for  several  seasons.  Those  which  breed 
in  a  ready-finished  house,  get  the  start  in  hatching 
of  those  that  build  new  by  ten  days  or  a  fortnight. 
These  industrious  artificers  are  at  their  labours  in 
the  long  days  before  four  in  the  morning ;  when  they 
fix  their  materials,  they  plaster  them  on  with  their 
chins,  moving  their  heads  with  a  quick  vibratory 
motion. 

"  It  has  been  observed  that  martins  usually  build 
to  a  northeast  or  northwest  aspect,  that  the  heat 


THE    WINDOW-SWALLOW. 


41 


of  the  sun  may  not  crack  and  destroy  their  nests ; 
but  instances  are  also  remembered  where  they  bred 
for  many  years  in  vast  numbers  in  a  hot,  stifled  inn- 
yard,  against  a  wall  facing  to  the  south.  Birds  in 
general  are  wise  in  their  choice  of  situation ;  but  in 
this  neighbourhood,  every  summer,  is  seen  a  strong 


The  Window- Swallow  (Hirundo  ubicd). 

proof  to  the  contrary  at  a  house  without  eaves  in  an 
exposed  district,  where  some  martins  build  year  by 
year  in  the  corners  of  the  windows.  But  as  the 
corners  of  these  windows  (which  face  to  the  south- 
east and  southwest)  are  too  shallow,  the  nests  are 
washed  down  every  hard  rain ;  and  yet  these  birds 
D  2 


42  THE  ARCHITECTURE    OP  BIRDS. 

drudge  on  to  no  purpose  from  summer  to  summer, 
without  changing  their  aspect  or  house.  It  is  a 
most  piteous  sight  to  see  them  labouring  when  half 
their  nest  is  washed  away.r* 

The  swallow  is  a  general  favourite.  He  comes 
to  us  when  nature  is  putting  on  her  most  smiling 
aspect,  and  he  stays  with  us  through  the  months 
of  sunshine  and  gladness.  "  The  swallow,"  says 
Sir  H.  Davy,  "  is  one  of  my  favourite  birds,  and  a 
rival  of  the  nightingale ;  for  he  glads  my  sense  of 
seeing  as  much  as  the  other  does  my  sense  of 
hearing.  He  is  the  joyous  prophet  of  the  year,  the 
harbinger  of  the  best  season ;  he  lives  a  life  of 
enjoyment  among  the  loveliest  forms  of  nature; 
winter  is  unknown  to  him,  and  he  leaves  the  green 
meadows  of  England  in  autumn,  for  the  myrtle  and 
orange  groves  of  Italy,  and  for  the  palms  of  Africa." 

A  remarkable  contrast  to  the  snug  little  clay  nest 
of  the  swallow  is  presented  by  the  massive,  Egyp- 
tian-like edifice  of  a  very  singular  bird,  who  builds, 
however,  with  somewhat  similar  materials — the 
flamingo  or  crimson-wing  of  the  ancients  (Phceni- 
copterus  ruber,  LINN.).  The  increase  of  population 
seems  to  have  partly  banished  this  species,  with 
many  other  birds,  from  the  shores  of  Europe  to 
the  less  frequented  waters  of  America  and  Africa, 
where  it  may  be  seen,  as  Campbell  describes  it, 

"  Disporting  like  a  meteor  on  the  lakes." 

Roberts,  a  traveller  who  viewed  the  bird  through  a 
plain  prosaic  medium,  compares  a  line  of  them  to 
a  brick  wall,  for  which,  he  says,  their  colour  and 
attitude  may  cause  them  to  be  taken.  Indeed,  the 
appearance  of  this  bird  has  led  to  many  misconcep- 
tions. During  the  French  revolutionary  war,  when 
the  English  were  expected  to  make  a  descent  upon 
St.  Domingo,  a  negro,  having  perceived,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  some  miles,  in  the  direction  of  the  sea,  a 

*  White's  Selborne,  i ,  272. 


THE   FLAMINGO.  43 

long  file  of  flamingoes,  ranked  up  and  preening  their 
wings,  forthwith  magnified  them  into  an  army  of 
English  soldiers ;  their  long  necks  were  mistaken 
for  shouldered  muskets,  and  their  scarlet  plumage 
had  suggested  the  idea  of  a  military  costume.  The 
poor  fellow  accordingly  started  off  to  Gonaives, 
running  through  the  streets  and  vociferating  that 
the  English  were  come.  Upon  this  alarm  the  com- 
mandant of  the  garrison  instantly  sounded  the  toc- 
sin, doubled  the  guards,  and  sent  out  a  body  of  men 
to  reconnoitre  the  invaders ;  but  he  soon  found,  by 
means  of  his  glass,  that  it  was  only  a  troop  of  re'd 
flamingoes,  and  the  corps  of  observation  marched 
back  to  the  garrison,  rejoicing  at  their  bloodless 
expedition. 

The  great  length  of  the  tegs  of  flamingoes  ob- 
viously unfits  them  for  sitting  or  squatting  upon  a 
flat  or  low  nest,  as  is  the  practice  of  the  families 
allied  to  them ;  and  hence,  according  to  Linnaeus, 
they  select  for  their  nests  some  projecting  shelf  of 
a  rock,  upon  which  they  can  sit  astride,  like  a  man 
on  horseback,  without  bending  their  legs.  With- 
out discrediting  this  account,  we  subjoin  that  which 
Dampier  gives  of  the  flamingoes  observed  by  him 
at  Rio  de  la  Hacha,  at  an  island  opposite  Curaooa, 
and  at  the  Isle  of  Sal.  "They  make  their  nest," 
he  says,  "in  the  marshes,  where  they  find  plenty 
of  slime,  which  they  heap  with  their  claws,  and 
form  hillocks  resembling  little  islets,  and  which 
appear  a  foot  and  a  half  above  the  water.  They 
make  the  base  broad,  and  taper  the  structure  grad- 
ually to  the  top,  where  they  leave  a  small  hollow 
to  receive  their  eggs.  When  they  lay  or  hatch, 
they  stand  erect,  not  on  the  top,  but  very  near  it, 
their  feet  on  the  ground  and  in  the  water,  leaning 
themselves  against  the  hillock,  and  covering  the 
nest  with  their  tail.  Their  eggs  are  very  long,  and 
as  they  make  their  nest  on  the  ground,  they  could 
not,  without  injuring  their  eggs  or  their  young, 


44  ARCHITECTURE    OF   BIRDS. 

have  their  legs  in  the  nest,  nor  sit,  nor  support  their 
whole  body,  but  for  this  wonderful  instinct  which 
nature  has  given  them."* 


The  Flamingo  (Phanicoplerus  ruber,  LlNN.)-     The  Female  is 
represented  in  the  background  on  the  nest. 

*  Dampier's  Voy.,  i.  70. 


THE    FLAMINGO.  45 

A  similar  account  is  furnished  by  Catesby,  who 
compares  the  flamingo,  sitting  across  its  nest,  to  a 
man  on  a  desk-stool,  with  his  legs  hanging  down.* 
Labat,  who  found  these  birds  breeding  in  multitudes 
on  the  coasts  of  Cuba  and  of  the  Bahama  Islands, 
on  the  deluged  shores  and  low  islets,  says,  "  I  was 
shown  a  great  number  of  these  nests ;  they  resem- 
bled truncated  cones,  composed  of  fat  earth,  about 
eighteen  or  twenty  inches  high,  and  as  much  in 
diameter  at  the  base.  They  are  always  in  the 
water ;  that  is,  in  meres  or  marshes.  Their  cones 
are  solid  to  the  height  of  the  water,  and  then  hol- 
low, like  a  pot,  baned  at  top  ;  in  this  they  lay  two 
eggs,  which  they  hatch  by  resting  on  them,  and 
covering  the  hole  with  their  tail.  1  broke  some, 
but  found  neither  feathers,  nor  herbs,  nor  anything 
that  might  receive  the  eggs ;  the  bottom  is  some- 
what concave,  and  the  sides  are  very  even."  M. 
Descourtilz  represents  the  standing  position  of  the 
female,  while  hatching,  as  so  fatiguing,  that  the  male 
is  under  the  necessity  of  relieving  her,  though  he 
does  so  with  great  reluctance,  and  when  he  has  no 
longer  the  heart  to  refuse  her  importunate  cries. 
This  is  probably  little  more  than  the  fancy  of  the 
naturalist. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CARPENTER    BIRDS. 

THE  ancient  Peruvians  called  all  birds  which  chisel 
out  holes  in  trees  Tacatacas.  This  name  has  been 
literally  rendered  Carpenteros  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
the  appellation  is  contined  to  the  present  time. 

*  Catesby,  Carolina,  i.,  74. 


46  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OP    BIRDS. 

Among  these  carpenteros  they  rank  the  toucans 
(Ramphastidce),  but  whether  they  are  correct  in  this 
it  is  difficult  to  decide,  in  the  absence  of  any  very 
accurate  evidence.  The  bill  of  the  toucan,  indeed, 
seems,  upon  a  slight  inspection,  to  be  sufficiently 
powerful  for  the  task  assigned  it ;  but  it  is  found  on 
examination  to  be  much  inferior  in  strength  to  that 
appearance  of  it  which  is  indicated  by  its  size.  If  it 
were  not,  indeed,  of  light  materials,  it  would  be  im- 
possible for  the  bird  to  carry  its  head.  It  is  not 
solid,  but  full  of  reticular  cells,  as  thin  as  paper, 
over  which  Dr.  Traill,  of  Liverpool,  has  shown  that 
the  nasal  nerves  are  expanded.  Yet  the  universal 
opinion  of  the  people  where  these  birds  are  indige- 
nous is,  that  it  employs  its  large  bill  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  nest  in  the  trunk  of  a  decayed  tree.  Wil- 
lughby,  speaking  of  its  resemblance  to  the  wood- 
peckers, says,  "  it  not  only  hath  a  like  situation  of 
toes,  but  also  in  like  manner  hews  holes  in  trees  to 
build  its  nest  in."  "  Faber,"  he  adds,  "doth  not 


Head  and  Bill  of  a  Toucan  (Kamphastos  Toco). 


WOODPECKERS.  47 

undeservedly  inquire  how,  seeing  the  bill  so  light  and 
thin,  the  bird  can  pierce  trees  with  it  ?  Which  dif- 
ficulty he  thus  satisfies,  that  though  it  be  thin  and 
light,  yet  is  it  of  a  bony  substance,  and,  therefore, 
not  to  be  wondered  at  that,  dexterously  used  by 
the  living  animal,  it  should  therewith,  by  many  re- 
peated strokes,  pierce  a  tree,  having,  perchance,  the 
instinct  to  choose  a  rotten  one,  as  we  see  drops  of 
rain  wear  holes  in  flints."* 

Woodpeckers  of  every  species  (Picida,  VIGORS), 
probably  without  exception,  are  carpenters  in  the 
sense  in  which  we  have  used  the  term,  that  is,  they 
not  only  bore  into  trees  in  pursuit  of  insects  for  food, 
but  chisel  out  holes  for  the  purpose  of  nestling. 
Being  endowed  by  Providence  with  admirable  or- 
gans for  this  purpose,  we  have  a  right  to  infer  that 
they  take  as  much  pleasure  in  the  employment  of 
the  faculties  bestowed  upon  them  as  we  do  in  the 
most  agreeable  occupations.  Buffon,  on  the  other 
hand,  considers  such  labours  a  slavish  misery  to  the 
race  of  woodpeckers,  whom  he  represents  as  pe- 
culiarly wretched  examples  of  the  inequality  to  be 
found  in  the  distribution  of  happiness. 

"  Animals,"  says  Buffon,  "  constantly  engaged  in 
the  pursuit  of  prey,  urged  by  want  and  restrained  by 
apprehensions  of  danger,  depend  for  subsistence  on 
the  vigour  of  their  own  exertion ;  and  having  scarce- 
ly time  to  satisfy  their  immediate  desires,  they  can 
have  no  leisure  to  cherish  the  benevolent  affections. 
Such  is  the  solitary  condition  of  all  the  carnivorous 
birds,  except  a  few  cowardly  tribes,  which  prowl 
on  putrid  carrion,  and  rather  combine  like  robbers 
than  unite  as  friends. 

"  But  of  all  the  birds  which  earn  their  subsistence 
by  spoil,  none  leads  a  life  so  laborious  and  so  pain- 
ful as  the  woodpecker.  Nature  has  condemned  it 
to  incessant  toil  and  slavery;  while  others  freely 

*  Ornithology,  by  Ray,  129. 


48  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF   BIRDS. 

employ  their  courage  or  address,  and  either  shoot 
on  rapid  wing,  or  lurk  in  close  ambush,  the  wood- 
pecker is  constrained  to  drag  out  an  insipid  exist- 
ence, in  boring  the  bark  and  hard  fibres  of  trees  to 
extract  its  humble  prey.  Necessity  never  suffers 
any  intermission  of  its  labours,  never  grants  an  in- 
terval of  sound  repose:  often  during  the  night  it 
sleeps  in  the  same  painful  posture  as  in  the  fatigues 
of  the  day.  It  never  shares  the  cheerful  sports  of 
the  other  inhabitants  of  the  air ;  it  joins  not  their 
vocal  concerts ;  and  its  wild  and  saddening  tones, 
while  they  disturb  the  silence  of  the  forest,  express 
constraint  and  effort.  Its  movements  are  quick; 
its  gestures  full  of  inquietude ;  its  looks  coarse  and 
vulgar ;  it  shuns  society,  even  that  of  its  own  kind. 
Such  is  the  narrow  and  gross  instinct  suited  to  a 
mean  and  a  gloomy  life." 

It  would  be  difficult  to  conjecture  what  train  of 
thinking  led  the  French  naturalist  to  so  singular  a 
conclusion.  He  might,  with  equal  plausibility,  have 
given  a  similar  account  of  any  other  animal  whose 
life  is  spent  in  active  exertion.  We  turn  with  pleas- 
ure to  the  enthusiastic  defence  of  the  bird,  by  Wil- 
son, in  his  account  of  the  gold-winged  woodpecker 
(Colaptes  auratus,  SWAINS.). 

"  The  abject  and  degraded  character,"  says  he, 
"  which  the  Count  de  Buffon,  with  equal  eloquence 
and  absurdity,  has  drawn  of  the  whole  tribe  of  wood- 
peckers, belongs  not  to  the  elegant  and  sprightly 
bird  now  before  us.  He  is  not '  constrained  to  drag 
out  an  insipid  existence  in  boring  the  bark  and  hard 
fibres  of  trees  to  extrac  *iis  prey,'  for  he  frequently 
finds  in  the  loose,  mouldering  ruins  of  an  old  stump 
(the  capital  of  a  nation  of  pismires)  more  than  is 
sufficient  for  the  wants  of  a  whole  week.  He  can- 
not be  said  to  '  lead  a  mean  and  gloomy  life,  without 
an  intermission  of  labour,'  who  usually  feasts  by  the 
first  peep  of  dawn,  and  spends  the  early  and  sweet- 
est hours  of  morning  on  the  highest  peaks  of  the 
tallest  trees,  calling  on  his  mate  or  companions,  or 


WOODPECKERS.  49 

pursuing  and  gambolling  with  them  round  the  larger 
limbs  and  body  of  the  tree  for  hours  together ;  for 
such  are  really  his  habits.  Can  it  be  said  that  *  ne- 
cessity never  grants  an  interval  of  sound  repose'  to 
that  bird,  who,  while  other  tribes  are  exposed  to  all 
the  peltings  of  the  midnight  storm,  lodges  dry  and 
secure  in  a  snug  chamber  of  his  own  constructing ; 
or  that '  the  narrow  circumference  of  a  tree  circum- 
scribes his  dull  round  of  life,'  who,  as  seasons  and 
inclination  inspire,  roams  from  the  frigid  to  the  tor- 
rid zone,  feasting  on  the  abundance  of  various  re- 
gions '\  Or  is  it  a  proof  that  '  his  appetite  is  never 
softened  by  delicacy  of  taste,'  because  he  so  often 
varies  his  bill  of  fare,  occasionally  preferring  to  an- 
imal food  the  rich  milkiness  of  young  Indian  corn, 
and  the  wholesome  and  nourishing  berries  of  the 
wild  cherry,  sour  gum,  and  red  cedar?  Let  the 
reader  turn  to  the  faithful  representation  of  him  giv- 
en in  our  figure,  and  say  whether  his  looks  be  '  sad 
and  melancholy  V  It  is  truly  ridiculous  and  aston- 
ishing that  such  absurdities  should  escape  the  lips  or 
pen  of  one  so  able  to  do  justice  to  the  respective 
merits  of  every  species;  but  Buffon  had  too  often  a 
favourite  theory  to  prop  up,  that  led  him  insensibly 
astray  :  and  so,  forsooth,  the  whole  family  of  wood- 
peckers must  look  sad,  sour,  and  be  miserable,  to 
satisfy  the  caprice  of  a  whimsical  philosopher,  who 
takes  it  into  his  head  that  they  are,  and  ought  to 
be  so." 

Not  contented  with  the  defence  of  his  gold- wing- 
ed woodpecker,  Wilson  returns  with  renewed  spirit 
to  the  vindication  of  the  det^gns  of  Providence  when 
he  comes  to  the  history  of  a  much  smaller  bird  of 
the  same  species,  the  downy  woodpecker  (Picuspu- 
bescens).  "  The  principal  characteristics,"  he  says, 
"  of  this  little  bird,  are  diligence,  familiarity,  perse- 
verance, and  a  strength  and  energy  in  the  head  and 
muscles  of  the  neck  which  are  truly  astonishing. 
Mounted  on  the  infected  branch  of  an  old  apple-tree, 
where  insects  have  lodged  their  corroding  and  de- 
E 


50  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

structive  brood  in  crevices  between  the  bark  and 
wood,  he  labours  sometimes  for  half  an  hour  inces- 
santly at  the  same  spot  before  he  has  succeeded  in 
dislodging  and  destroying  them.  At  these  times  you 
may  walk  up  pretty  close  to  the  tree,  and  even  stand 
immediately  below  it,  within  five  or  six  feet  of  the 
bird,  without  in  the  least  embarrassing  him;  the 
strokes  of  his  bill  are  distinctly  heard  several  hun- 
dred yards  off;  and  I  have  known  him  to  be  at  work 
for  two  hours  together  on  the  same  tree.  Buffon 
calls  this  '  incessant  toil  and  slavery ;'  their  attitude 
'  a  painful  posture  ;'  and  their  life  '  a  dull  and  insipid 
existence;'  expressions  improper  because  untrue, 
and  absurd  because  contradictory.  The  posture  is 
that  for  which  the  whole  organization  of  his  frame 
is  particularly  adapted ;  and  though  to  a  wren  or  a 
humming-bird  the  labour  would  be  both  a  toil  and  a 
slavery,  yet  to  him  it  is,  I  am  convinced,  as  pleasant 
and  as  amusing  as  the  sports  of  the  chase  to  the  hunt- 
er, or  the  sucking  of  flowers  to  the  humming-bird. 
The  eagerness  with  which  he  traverses  the  upper 
and  lower  sides  of  the  branches ;  the  cheerfulness 
of  his  cry ;  and  the  liveliness  of  his  motions,  while 
digging  into  the  tree  and  dislodging  the  vermin,  jus- 
tify this  belief." 

Our  author's  account  of  the  nestling  of  this  active 
little  bird  is  equally  lively.  "  About  the  middle  of 
May,"  says  he,  "  the  male  and  female  look  out  for  a 
suitable  place  for  the  reception  of  their  eggs  and 
young.  An  apple,  pear,  or  cherry  tree,  often  in  the 
near  neighbourhood  of  the  farmhouse,  is  generally 
pitched  upon  for  this  purpose.  The  tree  is  minutely 
reconnoitred  for  several  days  previous  to  the  opera- 
tion, and  the  work  is  first  begun  by  the  male,  who 
cuts  out  a  hole  in  the  solid  wood,  as  circular  as  if 
described  with  a  pair  of  compasses.  .He  is  occa- 
sionally relieved  by  the  female,  both  parties  work- 
ing with  the  most  indefatigable  diligence.  The  di- 
rection of  the  hole,  if  made  in  the  body  of  the  tree, 


WOODPECKERS.  51 

is  generally  downward,  by  an  angle  of  thirty  or 
forty  degrees,  for  the  distance  of  six  or  eight  inches, 
and  then  straight  down  for  ten  or  twelve  more ; 
within  roomy,  capacious,  and  as  smooth  as  if  polished 
by  the  cabinet-maker ;  but  the  entrance  is  judiciously 
left  just  so  large  as  to  admit  the  body  of  the  owner. 
During  this  labour  they  regularly  carry  out  the  chips, 
often  strewing  them  at  a  distance,  to  prevent  sus- 
picion. This  operation  sometimes  occupies  the 
chief  part  of  a  week.  The  female,  before  she  begins 
to  lay,  often  visits  the  place,  passes  out  and  in,  ex- 
amines every  part,  both  of  the  exterior  and  interior, 
with  great  attention,  as  every  prudent  tenant  of  a 
new  house  ought  to  do,  and  at  length  takes  complete 
possession.  The  eggs  are  generally  six,  pure  white, 
and  laid  on  the  smooth  bottom  of  the  cavity."* 

The  red-bellied  woodpecker  (Picus  Carolinus) 
also  digs  a  cavity  for  its  nest,  but  seems  anxious  to 
procure  all  possible  shelter  from  the  weather  by 
selecting  the  lower  side  of  some  lofty  branch,  that 
makes  a  considerable  angle  with  the  horizon.  It 
prefers,  however,  the  hollow  limb  of  a  tree,  making 
the  excavation  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  above  where 
it  becomes  solid.  The  same  anxiety  for  protection 
leads  most  of  the  species  to  cut  out  a-  very  narrow 
opening.  That  of  the  yellow-bellied  woodpecker 
(Picus  varius)  Wilson  describes  as  almost  exactly 
circular,  and  so  small,  for  the  size  of  the  bird,  that 
it  can  creep  out  and  in  with  difficulty ;  but  within  it 
suddenly  widens,  descending  by  a  small  angle,  and 
then  running  downward  about  fifteen  inches,  the 
eggs  being  laid  on  the  smooth  solid  wood.  This 
plan  is  also  pursued  by  the  red-headed  woodpecker 
(Picus  erythrocephalusi),  which  is  so  little  afraid  of 
man  that  it  not  unfrequently  breeds  in  the  trees 
growing  in  the  streets  of  the  American  cities.  Wil- 
son found  several  of  these  nests  within  the  bounda- 

*  Wilson,  Amer.  Ornith.,  i.,  154. 
f  Ibid.,  145-147. 


52  THE ,  ARCHITECTURE    OF   BIRDS. 

ries  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  :  two  in  the  button- 
wood  (Platanus  occidentalis),  and  one  in  the  decayed 
limb  of  an  elm.  "  The  old  ones,"  he  says,  "  I  ob- 
serve, make  their  excursions  regularly  to  the  woods 
beyond  the  Schuylkill,  about  a  mile  distant ;  pre- 
serving great  silence  and  circumspection  in  visiting 
their  nests ;  precautions  not  much  attended  to  by 
them  in  the  depths  of  the  woods,  because  there  the 
prying  eye  of  man  is  less  to  be  dreaded.  But  not- 
withstanding the  care  which  this  bird,  in  common 
with  the  rest  of  its  genus,  takes  to  place  its  young 
beyond  the  reach  of  enemies,  within  the  hollows  of 
trees,  yet  there  is  one  deadly  foe,  against  whose  dep- 
redations neither  the  height  of  the  tree  nor  the  depth 
of  the  cavity  is  the  least  security.  This  is  the  black- 
snake  (Colubor  constrictor),  who  frequently  glides  up 
the  trunk  of  the  tree,  and,  like  a  skulking  savage,  en- 
ters the  woodpecker's  peaceful  apartment,  devours 
the  eggs  or  helpless  young,  in  spite  of  the  cries  and 
flutterings  of  the  parents ;  and,  if  the  place  be  large 
enough,  coils  himself  up  in  the  spot  they  occupied, 
where  he  will  sometimes  remain  for  several  days. 
The  eager  schoolboy,  after  hazarding  his  neck  to 
reach  the  woodpecker's  hole,  at  the  triumphant  mo- 
ment when  he  thinks  the  nestlings  his  own,  and  strips 
his  arm,  launching  it  down  into  the  cavity,  and  grasp- 
ing what  he  conceives  to  be  the  callow  young,  starts 
with  horror  at  the  sight  of  a  hideous  snake,  and  almost 
drops  from  his  giddy  pinnacle,  retreating  down  the 
tree  with  terror  and  precipitation.  Several  adven- 
tures of  this  kind  have  come  to  my  knowledge  ;  and 
one  of  them  that  was  attended  with  serious  conse- 
quences, where  both  boy  and  snake  fell  to  the  ground, 
and  a  broken  thigh  and  long  confinement  cured  the 
adventurer  completely  of  his  ambition  for  robbing 
woodpeckers'  nests."* 

Were  we  merely  to  judge  from  the  bill  alone,  we 
should  be  disposed  to  consider  the  ivory-billed  wood- 

*  Wilson's  Amer.  Ornith.,  i.,  146. 


WOODPECKERS.  53 

pecker  (Picus  principalis)  the  prince  of  the  carpenter 
birds.  This  powerful  instrument  is  as  white,  and 
much  tougher,  if  not  harder,  than  ivory,  and  elegant- 
ly fluted.  With  this  he  can  dig  into  the  hardest 
trees,  either  for  food  or  for  nestling.  In  the  low 
countries  of  the  Carolinas,  this  bird  usually  prefers 
the  large  timbered  cypress  swamps  for  breeding  in ; 
and  in  the  trunk  of  one  of  these  trees,  at  a  consid- 
erable height,  the  male  and  female  alternately,  and 
in  conjunction,  dig  out  a  large  and  capacious  cavity 
for  their  eggs  and  young.  Trees  thus  dug  out  have 
frequently  been  cut  down,  with  sometimes  the  eggs 
and  young  in  them :  the  hole  being  said  to  be  gen- 
erally a  little  winding,  the  better  to  keep  out  the 
weather,  and  from  two  to  five  feet  deep.  The  la- 
bour of  digging  out  a  hole  of  such  dimensions  may 
be  considered  almost  beyond  the  execution  of  these 
birds;  but  when  we  read  of  some  of  their  other 
feats  in  carpentry,  the  fact  does  not  appear  in  the 
least  surprising.  Wilson  gives  the  following  inter- 
esting history  of  one  which  he  captured. 

"  The  first  place,"  says  he,  "  I  observed  this  bird 
at,  when  on  my  way  to  the  South,  was  about  twelve 
miles  north  of  Wilmington,  in  North  Carolina. 
There  I  found  the  bird  from  which  the  drawing  of 
the  figure  was  taken.  This  bird  was  only  wounded 
slightly  in  the  wing,  and,  on  being  caught,  uttered  a 
loudly  reiterated  and  most  piteous  note,  exactly  re- 
sembling the  violent  crying  of  a  young  child,  which 
terrified  my  horse  so  as  nearly  to  have  cost  me  my 
life.  It  was  distressing  to  hear  it.  I  carried  it  with 
me  in  the  chair,  under  cover,  to  Wilmington.  In 
passing  through  the  streets,  its  affecting  cries  sur- 
prised every  one  within  hearing,  particularly  the 
females,  who  hurried  to  the  doors  and  windows  with 
looks  of  alarm  and  anxiety.  I  drove  on,  and  on  ar- 
riving at  the  piazza  of  the  hotel  where  I  intended 
to  put  up,  the  landlord  came  forward,  and  a  number 
of  other  persons  who  happened  to  be  there,  all 
equally  alarmed  at  what  they  heard ;  this  was  great- 
E2 


54  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF  BIRDS. 

ly  increased  by  my  asking  whether  he  could  furnish 
me  with  accommodations  for  myself  and  my  baby. 
The  man  looked  blank  and  foolish,  while  the  others 
stared  with  still  greater  astonishment.  After  divert- 
ing myself  for  a  minute  or  two  at  their  expense,  I 
drew  my  woodpecker  from  under  the  cover,  and  a 
general  laugh  took  place.  I  took  him  up  stairs,  and 
locked  him  up  in  my  room,  while  I  went  to  see  my 
horse  taken  care  of.  In  less  than  an  hour  I  return- 
ed, and,  on  opening  the  door,  he  set  up  the  same  dis- 
tressing shout,  which  now  appeared  to  proceed  from 
grief  that  he  had  been  discovered  in  his  attempts  at 
escape.  He  had  mounted  along  the  side  of  the  win- 
dow, nearly  as  high  as  the  ceiling,  a  little  below 
which  he  had  begun  to  break  through.  The  bed 
was  covered  with  large  pieces  of  plaster,  the  lath 
\vas  exposed  for  at  least  fifteen  inches  square,  and 
a  hole,  large  enough  to  admit  the  fist,  opened  to  the 
weather-boards ;  so  that,  in  less  than  another  hour, 
he  would  certainly  have  succeeded  in  making  his 
way  through.  I  now  tied  a  string  round  his  leg,  and, 
fastening  it  to  the  table,  again  left  him.  I  wished 
to  preserve  his  life,  and  had  gone  off  in  search  of 
suitable  food  for  him.  As  I  reascended  the  stairs 
I  heard  him  again  hard  at  work,  and  on  entering  had 
the  mortification  to  perceive  that  he  had  almost  en- 
tirely ruined  the  mahogany  table  to  which  he  was 
fastened,  and  on  which  he  had  wreaked  his  whole 
vengeance.  While  engaged  in  taking  the  drawing, 
he  cut  me  severely  in  several  places,  and  on  the 
whole  he  displayed  such  a  noble  and  unconquerable 
spirit,  that  I  was  frequently  tempted  to  restore  him 
to  his  native  woods.  He  lived  with  me  nearly  three 
days,  but  refused  all  sustenance ;  and  I  witnessed 
his  death  with  regret.  The  head  and  bill  of  this 
bird  is  in  great  esteem  among  the  Southern  Indians, 
who  wear  them  by  way  of  amulet  or  charm,  as 
well  as  ornament,  and,  it  is  said,  dispose  of  them  to 
the  Northern  tribes  at  considerable  prices.  An  In- 


PLATFORM    BUILDERS.  55 

dian  believes  that  the  head,  skin,  or  even  feathers 
of  certain  birds  confer  on  the  wearer  all  the  virtues 
or  excellences  of  those  birds.  Thus  I  have  seen  a 
coat  made  of  the  skins,  heads,  and  claws  of  the  ra- 
ven ;  caps  stuck  round  with  heads  of  butcher-birds, 
hawks,  and  eagles ;  and  as  the  disposition  and  cour- 
age of  the  ivory-billed  woodpecker  are  well  known 
to  the  savages,  no  wonder  they  should  attach  great 
value  to  it,  having  both  beauty,  and,  in  their  estima- 
tion, distinguished  merit  to  recommend  it."* 


CHAPTER  V. 

PLATFORM    BUILDERS. 

IT  seems  an  essential  property  of  a  nest  that  it 
should  be  constructed  so  as  to  secure  the  eggs  from 
rolling  out ;  and  the  term  accordingly  always  sug- 
gests the  idea  of  a  cup-shaped  cavity,  more  or  less 
hollow.  Many  species,  however/which  nestle  on 
the  ground,  are  neither  at  the  trouble  of  selecting  a 
hollow  place  nor  of  excavating  one,  but  content 
themselves  with  a  horizontal  flat,  there  being  little 
danger  in  such  positions  of  the  eggs  tumbling  about. 
Even  should  they  be  moved,  the  mother  bird  can 
easily  rearrange  them.  In  cases,  also,  such  as  the 
rotch  (Mergulus  melanoleucus,  RAY),  which  nestles 
on  bare  rocks,  the  mother  bird  lays  only  a  single 
egg.  We  can  easily  understand  why  the  nests  of 
birds  which  nestle  on  the  ground  are  constructed 
with  little  art ;  but  what  are  we  to  say  to  the  prac- 
tice of  a  considerable  number  of  birds  which  nestle 
on  trees,  and  other  lofty  and  exposed  situations,  and 
form  a  flat  horizontal  nest,  without  the  slightest  cav- 
ity or  depression  for  containing  the  eggs  and  young  ? 
*  Wilson,  Amer.  Ornith.,  iv.,  p.  24. 


56  THE   ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

The  best-known  nest  of  this  description  is  that  of 
the  cushat,  ring-dove,  or  wood-pigeon  (Columba  Pa- 
lumbus,  LINN.).  The  nest  of  this  bird  is  a  very  slight 
structure,  and  still  less  calculated  for  warmth  or 
shelter,  the  hot  nature  of  the  parent  birds,  according 
to  Albertus  Magnus,  not  requiring  this.  It  may,  with 
the  utmost  propriety,  be  called  a  platform,  being  com- 
posed of  a  flat  pile  of  twigs,  not  artfully  interwoven, 
as  is  stated  in  some  books,  but  laid  crossways  upon 
one  another  in  a  rather  loose  manner,  though  not 
without  neatness  and  attention  to  symmetry;  for, 
when  completed,  the  structure  is  always  very  nearly 
circular.  The  larger  and  longest  twigs  are  laid  as  a 
foundation,  the  sizes  chosen  becoming  smaller  as 
the  work  advances.  It  is  mentioned  that  in  some 
instances  the  eggs  may  be  seen  through  the  twigs 
from  below. 

The  American  pigeons  are  also  platform  builders ; 
for  example,  the  Carolina  pigeon  (Columba  Caroli- 
nensis),  which,  according  to  Wilson,  commences 
building  about  the  beginning  of  May,  the  nest  being 
"  very  rudely  constructed,  generally  in  an  evergreen, 
among  the  thick  foliage  of  the  vine,  in  an  orchard 
on  the  horizontal  branches  of  an  apple-tree,  and  in 
some  instances  on  the  ground.  It  is  composed  of 
small  twigs,  laid  with  little  art,  on  which  are  scat- 
tered dry  fibrous  roots  of  plants,  and  in  this  almost  flat 
bed  are  deposited  two  eggs  of  a  snowy  whiteness."* 

A  similar  mode  of  building  is  practised  by  the 
American  passenger  pigeon  (Columba  migratoria), 
the  most  prolific  of  the  whole  family,  and  perhaps 
of  all  other  birds,  if  the  numbers  reared  be  regarded, 
though  it  seems  to  be  ascertained  that  the  female 
only  lays  a  single  egg  at  one  hatch.  This  singular 
bird  inhabits  a  wide  and  extensive  region  of  North 
America,  though  it  does  not  seem  to  be  known 
westward  of  the  Great  Stony  Mountains;  but 
spreads  all  over  Canada,  and  ranges  as  far  south 
as  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

*  Wilson's  Amer.  Oraith.,  v.,  93. 


AMERICAN    PIGEONS.  57 

The  numbers  of  these  birds  which  associate  in 
their  breeding- places  almost  surpass  belief;  but  the 
facts  are  too  well  authenticated  to  admit  of  any 
doubt.  These  breeding-places  are  always  in  the 
woods,  and  sometimes  occupy  a  large  extent  of 
forest.  "  When  they  have  frequented,"  says  Wil- 
son, "  one  of  these  places  for  some  time,  the  ap- 
pearance it  exhibits  is  surprising.  The  ground  is 
covered  to  the  depth  of  several  inches  with  their 
dung ;  all  the  tender  grass  and  underwood  destroyed ; 
the  surface  strewed  with  large  limbs  of  trees,  broken 
down  by  the  weight  of  the  birds  clustering  one  above 
another ;  and  ftie  trees  themselves,  for  thousands  of 
acres,  killed  as  completely  as  if  girdled  with  an  axe. 
The  marks  of  this  desolation  remain  for  many  years 
on  the  spot ;  and  numerous  places  could  be  pointed 
out  where  for  several  years  after  scarce  a  single 
vegetable  made  its  appearance.  By  the  Indians, 
a  pigeon-roost  or  breeding-place  is  considered  an 
important  source  of  national  profit  and  dependance. 
The  breeding-place  differs  from  the  former  in  its 
greater  extent.  In  the  western  countries  above 
mentioned,  these  are  generally  in  beech  woods,  and 
often  extend  in  nearly  a  straight  line  across  the 
country  for  a  great  way.  Not  far  from  Shelby  ville, 
in  the  State  of  Kentucky,  about  five  years  ago,  there 
was  one  of  these  breeding-places,  which  stretched 
through  the  woods  nearly  in  a  north  and  south  di- 
rection ;  was  several  miles  in  breadth,  and  was  said 
to  be  upward  of  forty  miles  in  extent !  In  this  tract 
almost  every  tree  was  furnished  with  nests,  wher- 
ever the  branches  could  accommodate  them.  The 
pigeons  made  their  first  appearance  there  about  the 
10th  of  April,  and  left  it  altogether,  with  their  young, 
before  the  25th  of  May.  As  soon  as  the  young  were 
fully  grown,  and  before  they  left  their  nests,  numer- 
ous parties  of  the  inhabitants  from  all  parts  of  the 
adjacent  country  came  with  wagons,  axes,  beds, 
cooking  utensils,  many  of  them  accompanied  by  the 


58  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OP    BIRDS. 

greater  part  of  their  families,  and  encamped  for  sev- 
eral days  at  this  immense  nursery.  Several  of  them 
informed  me  that  the  noise  in  the  woods  was  so 
great  as  to  terrify  their  horses,  and  that,  in  speaking, 
it  was  difficult  for  one  person  to  make  another  hear 
without  bawling  in  his  ear.  The  ground  was  strewed 
with  broken  limbs  of  trees,  eggs,  and  young  pigeons, 
which  had  been  precipitated  from  above,  and  on 
which  herds  of  hogs  were  fattening.  Hawks,  buz- 
zards, and  eagles  were  sailing  about  in  great  num- 
bers, and  seizing  the  young  from  their  nest  at  pleas- 
ure ;  while,  from  twenty  feet  upward  to  the  tops 
of  the  trees,  the  view  through  the  woods  presented 
-a  perpetual  tumult  of  crowding  and  fluttering  multi- 
tudes of  pigeons,  their  wings  roaring  like  thunder, 
mingled  with  the  frequent  crash  of  falling  timber ; 
for  now  the  axemen  were  at  work  cutting  down 
those  trees  that  seemed  to  be  most  crowded  with 
nests,  and  contrived  to  fell  them  in  such  a  manner 
that  in  their  descent  they  might  bring  down  several 
others ;  by  which  means  the  falling  of  one  large 
tree  sometimes  produced  two  hundred  young,  little 
inferior  in  size  to  the  old  ones,  and  almost  one  mass 
of  fat.  On  some  single  tree  upward  of  one  hundred 
nests  were  found,  each  containing  a  single  young 
one  only,  a  circumstance  in  the  history  of  this  bird 
not  generally  known  to  naturalists.  It  was  danger- 
ous to  walk  under  these  flying  and  fluttering  mil- 
lions, from  the  frequent  fall  of  large  branches,  broken 
down  by  the  weight  of  the  multitudes  above,  and 
which,  in  their  descent,  often  destroyed  numbers  of 
the  birds  themselves. 

"  These  circumstances  were  related  to  me  by 
many  of  the  most  respectable  part  of  the  community 
in  that  quarter ;  and  were  confirmed  in  part  by  what 
I  myself  witnessed.  I  passed  for  several  miles 
through  this  same  breeding-place,  where  every  tree 
was  spotted  with  nests,  the  remains  of  those  above 
described.  In  many  instances  I  counted  upward  of 


AMERICAN    PIGEONS.  59 

ninety  nests  on  a  single  tree ;  but  the  pigeons  had 
abandoned  this  place  for  another,  sixty  or  eighty 
miles  off,  towards  Green  River,  where  they  were 
said  at  that  time  to  be  equally  numerous.  From  the 
great  numbers  that  were  constantly  passing  over 
head  to  or  from  that  quarter,  I  had  no  doubt  of  the 
truth  of  this  statement.  The  beech  mast  had  been 
chiefly  consumed  in  Kentucky,  and  the  pigeons  every 
morning,  a  little  before  sunrise,  set  out  for  the  In- 
diana territory,  the  nearest  part  of  which  was  about 
sixty  miles  distant.  Many  of  these  returned  before 
ten  o'clock,  and  the  great  body  generally  appeared  on 
their  return  a  little  after  noon.  I  had  left  the  public 
road  to  visit  the  remains  of  the  breeding-place  near 
Shelbyville,  and  was  traversing  the  woods  with  my 
gun,  on  my  way  to  Frankfort,  when,  about  one  o'clock, 
the  pigeons,  which  I  had  observed  flying  the  greater 
part  of  the  morning  northerly,  began  the  return  in 
such  immense  numbers  as  I  never  before  had  wit- 
nessed. Coming  to  an  opening  by  the  side  of  a 
creek  called  the  Benson,  where  I  had  a  more  unin- 
terrupted view,  I  was  astonished  at  their  appearance. 
They  were  flying  with  great  steadiness  and  rapidity, 
at  a  height  beyond  gunshot,  in  several  strata  deep, 
and  so  close  together  that,  could  shot  have  reached 
them,  one  discharge  could  not  have  failed  of  bring- 
ing down  several  individuals.  From  right  to  left, 
as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  the  breadth  of  this  vast 
procession  extended,  seeming  everywhere  equally 
crowded.  Curious  to  determine  how  long  this  ap- 
pearance would  continue,  I  took  out  my  watch  to 
note  the  time,  and  sat  down  to  observe  them.  It 
was  then  half  past  one.  I  sat  for  more  than  an  hour, 
but,  instead  of  a  diminution  of  this  prodigious  pro- 
cession, it  seemed  rather  to  increase  both  in  numbers 
and  rapidity  ;  and,  anxious  to  reach  Frankfort  before 
night,  I  rose  and  went  on.  About  four  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon  I  crossed  the  Kentucky  river  at  the  town  of 
Frankfort,  at  which  time  the  living  torrent  above  my 


60  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

head  seemed  as  numerous  and  as  extensive  as  ever. 
Long  after  this  I  observed  them  in  large  bodies,  that 
continued  to  pass  for  six  or  eight  minutes,  and  these 
again  were  followed  by  other  detached  bodies,  all 
moving  in  the  same  southeast  direction  till  after  six 
in  the  evening.  The  great  breadth  of  front  which 
this  mighty  multitude  preserved  would  seem  to  inti- 
mate a  corresponding  breadth  of  their  breeding-place, 
which,  by  several  gentlemen  who  had  lately  passed 
through  part  of  it,  was  stated  to  me  at  several  miles. 
It  was  said  to  be  in  Green  county,  and  that  the 
young  began  to  fly  about  the  middle  of  March.  On 
the  17th  of  April,  forty-nine  miles  beyond  Danville, 
and  not  far  from  Green  River,  I  crossed  this  same 
breeding-place,  where  the  nests  for  more  than  three 
miles  spotted  every  tree ;  the  leaves  not  being  yet  out, 
I  had  a  fair  prospect  of  them,  and  was  really  aston- 
ished at  their  numbers.  A  few  bodies  of  pigeons 
lingered  yet  in  different  parts  of  the  woods,  the  roar- 
ing of  whose  wings  were  heard  in  various  quarters 
around  me.  All  accounts  agree  in  stating  that  each 
nest  contains  only  a  single  young  one.  These  are 
so  extremely  fat,  that  the  Indians  and  many  of  the 
whites  are  accustomed  to  melt  down  the  fat  for 
domestic  purposes,  as  a  substitute  for  butter  and 
lard.  At  the  time  they  leave  the  nest  they  are  nearly 
as  heavy  as  the  old  ones,  but  become  much  leaner 
after  they  are  turned  out  to  shift  for  themselves."* 
The  platforms,  however,  which  are  thus  built  by 
some  of  the  pigeon  family,  are  mere  miniatures  of 
the  strong,  substantial,  and  extensive  structures  of 
the  same  kind  which  are  formed  by  a  considerable 
number  of  birds  of  prey  (Falconida,  LEACH).  Among 
these  platform-builders  on  the  large  scale,  we  have 
the  griffard,  or  martial  eagle  (Aquila  bellicosd)  of 
Southern  Africa,  a  powerful  bird,  which  preys  on  an- 
telopes, hares,  and  similar  animals,  and  is  in  the  habit 
of  soaring  so  high  as  to  elude  the  sight.  According 
*  Wilson's  Amer.  Ornith.,  v.,  207. 


THE    GRIFFARD.  61 

to  Vaillant,  who  ranks  among  the  very  best  observers 
of  the  manners  of  animals,  the  griffard  builds  either 
on  the  tops  of  the  loftiest  trees,  or  among  the  most 
inaccessible  and  rugged  rocks,  making  its  nest  quite 
flat,  in  the  manner  of  a  floor,  without  any  perceptible 
hollow.  It  is  so  firmly  constructed  that  it  will  bear 
the  weight  of  a  man  upon  it  without  giving  way,  and 
it  will  consequently  last  for  a  number  of  years.  It 
is  composed  at  first  of  several  strong  rafters  of  dif- 
ferent lengths,  according  to  the  distance  of  the 
branches  or  cliffs  upon  which  it  is  erected.  These 
rafters,  again,  are  interwoven  with  smaller  and  more 
flexible  branches,  which  unite  them  strongly  togeth- 
er, and  serve  as  the  foundation  of  the  platform. 
Over  this  is  piled  a  considerable  quantity  of  brush- 
wood, moss,  dry  leaves,  heath,  and  sometimes  rush- 
es, if  they  can  be  found  in  the  vicinity.  The  second 
floor,  if  we  may  call  it  so,  is  covered  with  a  bed  of 
small  pieces  of  dry  wood,  upon  which,  without  the 
addition  of  any  softer  materials,  the  female  deposites 
her  eggs.  The  eyry  or  nest  thus  constructed  is 
about  four  or  five  feet  in  diameter,  and  two  feet  thick, 
but  it  is  not  very  regular  in  its  form.  The  strong, 
massive  structure  of  the  nest  causes  it  to  endure  for 
many  years,  perhaps  during  the  lives  of  the  couple 
who  build  it,  if  they  are  not  compelled  to  abandon 
it  on  account  of  danger  or  alarm.  The  necessity  of 
'building  it  so  very  strong  will  be  more  obvious  when 
it  is  considered  that  the  parent  birds  weigh  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  pounds,  the  female  being  the 
larger  of  the  two,  as  is  common  among  birds  of  prey, 
exceeding  the  male  in  length  by  about  a  foot. 

The  several  species  of  herons  may  also  not  im- 
properly be  ranked  among  the  platform-builders; 
for  though  they  construct  a  shallow  depression  in 
the  centre  of  the  nest,  which  is  by  all  the  species, 
if  we  mistake  not,  lined  with  some  sort  of  soft  ma- 
terial, such  as  dry  grass,  rushes,  feathers,  or  wool, 
the  body  of  the  nest  is  quite  flat,  and  formed  much 
F 


62  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF   BIRDS. 

in  the  manner  of  an  eagle's  eyry,  of  sticks  crossing 
one  another,  and  supported  upon  the  branches  or 
between  the  forks  of  high  trees.  All  the  species 
also  are  social,  nestling  in  large  communities,  after 
the  manner  of  rooks  ;  though  instances  are  not  un- 
common of  individual  pairs  breeding  solitary. 

The  plumes  of  the  heron  were  formerly  in  high 
request  in  Europe,  as  ornaments  for  the  caps  and 
helmets  of  the  nobility ;  and  they  still  form  a  part 
of  the  splendid  costume  of  a  knight  of  the  garter. 
In  the  East  they  bear  a  high  value.  Chardin  tells 
us,  that  the  Persians  catch  the  heron,  and,  after  de- 
priving it  of  its  long  feathers,  suffer  it  to  depart  ;* 
and  these  plumes  even  form  a  part  of  the  royal  cor- 
onet or  crown  of  Persia.  Not  only  so,  but  dia- 
monds and  other  precious  stones,  set  in  the  shape 
of  heron's  feathers,  adorn  the  dhul-bandt  of  the 
Persian  monarch,  some  of  which  are  said  to  be 
worth  more  than  twenty  thousand  pounds  sterling. 
In  North  America  also,  the  Indians,  who  are  very 
choice  in  feathers,  hold  those  of  the  several  species 
of  heron  in  high  estimation  for  ornamenting  their 
hair  or  topknot,  and  Wilson  tells  us  they  are  some- 
times seen  in  the  market-place  of  New-Orleans 
with  bunches  of  them  for  sale. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

BASKET-MAKING   BIRDS. 

ALTHOUGH,  in  many  of  the  instances  recorded  in 
this  volume,  birds  far  excel  us  in  the  neatness  and 
delicacy  of  their  workmanship,  yet  those  which  we 

*  Chardin's  Travels,  p.  82. 


THE    BULFINCH.  63 

have  in  the  present  chapter  to  compare  to  basket- 
makers,  do  not  always  manifest  much  dexterity,  and, 
in  some  cases,  make  their  nests  very  loosely,  and 
in  an  ill-finished  manner.  The  materials  employed 
by  the  ingenuity  of  man  in  making  baskets  are  very 
various ;  for  though  the  greater  number  are  made 
of  osiers  and  other  flexible  twigs,  some  are  con- 
structed of  strips  of  wood,  some  of  leaves,  and  oth- 
ers of  rushes  or  reeds.  Even  the  least  refined  of 
savage  nations  are  often  dexterous  in  such  manu- 
factures. Vaillant  saw  some  baskets  among  the 
Gonaqua  Hottentots  of  Southern  Africa,  worked 
with  reeds  in  so  delicate  a  manner,  and  of  so  close 
a  texture,  that  they  were  used  for  carrying  water, 
milk,  and  other  liquids. 

Birds,  however,  make  use  of  many  more  kinds  of 
materials  in  forming  their  nest-baskets  than  is  done, 
so  far  as  we  know,  in  our  manufactures ;  while  they 
seldom,  if  ever,  employ  osiers  as  we  do.  Our  most 
conspicuous  and  best-known  basket-making  birds, 
indeed,  so  far  from  always  selecting  flexible  mate- 
rials, which  we  should  deem  indispensable,  prefer 
brittle  dead  sticks  at  least  for  the  outworks ;  which 
are,  in  fact,  constructed  at  the  commencement  of 
the  nest,  much  on  the  model  of  the  platform-build- 
ers. The  bulfinch  lays  a  foundation  of  birch  twigs, 
placed  crosswise  in  the  forks  of  the  branches,  pay- 
ing more  attention  to  the  security  of  the  fabric  than 
to  its  neatness.  But  when  she  gets  into  a  spruce 
pine,  finding  that  the  flat  branch  itself  is  an  excellent 
foundation,  she  uses  a  much  smaller  number  of 
sticks.  When  she  has  reared  a  groundwork  to 
her  mind,  she  proceeds  to  collect  a  quantity  of  flex- 
ible fibrous  roots,  which  she  intertwines  into  a  sort 
of  basket-work,  rather  loose,  and  only  sufficient  to 
hold  the  eggs  and  young  from  rolling  down.  The 
inside  is  wholly  lined  with  fine  roots  without  any 
hair  or  feathers. 


64 


THE   ARCHITECTURE    OF   BIRDS. 


Nest  of  the  Bulfinch  (Pyrrhula  vulgaris,  BHISSON). 

The  celebrated  American  mocking-bird  (Orpheus 
polyglottus,  SWAINS.)  makes  its  nest  of  similar  ma- 
terials, though  it  would  appear  from  the  description, 
as  well  as  from  Audubon's  beautiful  figure,  to  be  a 
more  substantial  structure.  "The  precise  time," 
says  Wilson,  "  at  which  the  mocking-bird  begins  to 
build  his  nest,  varies  according  to  the  latitude  in 
which  he  resides.  In  the  lower  parts  of  Georgia 
he  commences  building  early  in  April ;  but  in  Penn- 
sylvania rarely  before  the  10th  of  May ;  and  in  New- 
York  and  the  states  of  New-England  still  later. 
There  are  particular  situations  to  which  he  gives 


THE    MOCKING-BIUD. 


65 


The  Mocking-bird  (Orpheus  Polyglottus). 

the  preference.  A  solitary  thornbush ;  an  almost 
impenetrable  thicket;  an  orange-tree,  cedar,  or 
hollybush,  are  favourite  spots  and  frequently  select- 
ed. It  is  no  great  objection  with  him  that  these 
happen  sometimes  to  be  near  the  farm  or  mansion 
house  :  always  ready  to  defend,  but  never  over-anx- 
ious to  conceal,  his  nest,  he  very  often  builds  within 
a  small  distance  of  the  house,  and  not  unfrequently 
in  a  pear  or  apple  tree,  rarely  at  a  greater  height 
than  six  or  seven  feet  from  the  ground.  The  nest 
varies  a  little  with  different  individuals,  according  to 
the  convenience  of  collecting  suitable  materials. 
A  very  complete  one  is  now  lying  before  me,  and  is 
composed  of  the  following  substances.  First  a 
quantity  of  dry  twigs  and  sticks,  then  withered  tops 
of  weeds  of  the  preceding  year,  intermixed  with  fine 
F  2 


66  THE   ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

straws,  hay,  pieces  of  wool,  and  tow ;  and,  lastly,  a 
thick  layer  of  fine  fibrous  roots,  of  a  light  brown 
colour,  lines  the  whole.  The  eggs  are  four,  some- 
times five,  of  a  cinereous  blue,  marked  with  large 
blotches  of  brown.  The  female  sits  fourteen  days ; 
and  generally  produces  two  broods  in  the  season, 
unless  robbed  of  her  eggs,  in  which  case  she  will 
even  build  and  lay  the  third  time.  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  induce  these  charming  birds  to  pair, 
and  rear  their  young  in  a  state  of  confinement,  and 
the  result  has  been  such  as  to  prove  it,  by  proper 
management,  perfectly  practicable.  " 

The  red- winged  starling  (Sturnus  pradatorius, 
WILSON,  Agelaus  phosniceus  of  modern  naturalists) 
is  not  only  remarkable  for  his  basket-work,  but  also 
for  the  variety  with  which  his  nest  is,  according  to 
circumstances,  constructed,  furnishing  one  of  the 
best  instances  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  of  the 
adaptation  of  means  to  ends.  "  About  the  20th  of 
March,"  says  Wilson,  "  or  earlier,  if  the  season  be 
open,  they  begin  to  enter  Pennsylvania  in  numerous, 
though  small  parties.  These  migrating  flocks  are 
usually  observed  from  daybreak  to  eight  or  nine  in 
the  morning,  passing  to  the  north,  chattering  to  each 
other  as  they  fly  along ;  and,  in  spite  of  all  our  antip- 
athy, their  well-known  notes  and  appearance,  after 
the  long  and  dreary  solitude  of  winter,  inspire  cheer- 
ful and  pleasing  ideas  of  returning  spring,  warmth, 
and  verdure.  Selecting  their  old  haunts,  every 
meadow  is  soon  enlivened  by  their  presence.  They 
continue  in  small  parties  to  frequent  the  low  bor- 
ders of  creeks,  swamps,  and  ponds,  till  about  the 
middle  of  April,  when  they  separate  in  pairs  to 
breed ;  and  about  the  last  week  in  April  or  the  first 
in  May,  begin  to  construct  their  nests.  The  place 
chosen  for  this  is  generally  within  the  precincts  of  a 
marsh  or  swamp,  meadow,  or  other  like  watery  sit- 
uation. The  spot  usually  a  thicket  of  alder  bushes, 
at  the  height  of  six  or  seven  feet  from  the  ground ; 


THE    LOCUST-EATING    THRUSH.  67 

sometimes  in  a  detached  bush,  in  a  meadow  of  high 
grass ;  often  in  a  tussock  of  rushes,  or  coarse  rank 
grass,  and  not  unfrequently  in  the  ground ;  in  all 
of  which  situations  I  have  repeatedly  found  them. 
When  in  a  bush,  they  are  generally  composed  out- 
wardly of  wet  rushes  picked  from  the  swamp,  and 
long  tough  grass  in  large  quantity,  and  well  lined 
with  very  fine  bent.  The  rushes  forming  the  ex- 
terior are  generally  extended  to  several  of  the  ad- 
joining twigs,  round  which  they  are  repeatedly  and 
securely  twisted;  a  precaution  absolutely  necessary 
for  its  preservation,  on  account  of  the  flexible  na- 
ture of  the  bushes  in  which  it  is  placed.  The  same 
caution  is  observed  when  a  tussock  is  chosen,  by 
fastening  the  tops  together,  and  intertwining  the 
materials  of  which  the  nest  is  formed  with  the  stalks 
of  rushes  around.  When  placed  in  the  ground,  less 
care  and  fewer  materials  being  necessary,  the  nest 
is  much  simpler  and  slighter  than  before.  The  fe- 
male lays  five  eggs  of  a  very  pale  light  blue,  mark- 
ed with  faint  tinges  of  light  purple,  and  long  stra'g- 
gling  lines  and  dashes  of  black.  It  is  not  uncommon 
to  find  several  nests  in  the  same  thicket,  within  a 
few  feet  of  each  other."* 

The  birds  which  build  in  communities  in  South- 
ern Africa  furnish  us  with  exceedingly  interesting 
illustrations  upon  the  subject  of  this  chapter.  The 
locust-eating  thrush  (Turdus  bicolor)  is  one  of  those 
species  which,  according  to  Barrow,  congregate  in 
great  numbers.  These  unite  in  forming  a  common 
fabric  for  containing  individual  nests  large  enough 
for  a  vulture.  One  of  these,  which  he  met  with  on 
a  clump  of  low  bushes  at  Sneuwberg,  consisted  of 
a  number  of  cells,  each  of  which  formed  a  separate 
nest,  with  a  tubular  gallery  leading  into  it  through 
the  side.  Of  such  cells  each  clump  contained  from 
six  to  twenty,  one  roof  of  twigs  woven  into  a  sort 
of  basket-work  covering  the  whole. 

*  Wilson,  Amer.  Ornithol.,  iv.,  p.  32. 


68 


THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 


Another  of  these  gregarious  African  birds  is  the 
pensile  grosbeak  (Loxia  pensilis),  which  is  about  the 
size  of  a  house-sparrow,  and  makes  a  basket-nest  of 
straw  and  reeds,  interwoven  into  the  shape  of  a  bag, 
with  the  entrance  below,  while  it  is  fastened  above 
to  the  twig  of  some  tree,  chiefly  such  as  grow  on 
the  borders  of  streams.  On  one  side  of  this,  with- 
in, is  the  true  nest.  The  bird  does  not  build  a  dis- 
tinct nest  every  year,  but  fastens  a  new  one  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  old,  and  as  many  as  five  may  thus 
be  seen,  one  hanging  from  another.  From  five  to 
six  hundred  such  nests  have  been  observed  crowd- 
ed upon  one  tree. 


Nests  of  the  Pensile  Grosbeak  (Loxia  pensilis). 

A  living  author  of  reputation  thus  describes  these 
nests  ;  but  we  must  premise  that  we  do  not  coincide 
with  his  opinion  of  the  structure  being  devised  for 
defence  :  "  Several  varieties  of  the  finch  tribe,  in 
South  Africa,  suspend  their  nests  from  the  branches 


THE    BAYA.  69 

of  trees,  especially  where  they  happen  to  impend 
over  a  river  or  precipice.  The  object  of  this  pre- 
caution is  obviously  to  secure  their  offspring  from 
the  assaults  of  their  numerous  enemies,  particularly 
the  serpent  race.  To  increase  the  difficulty  of  ac- 
cess to  these  *  tree-rocked  cradles,'  the  entrance  is 
always  from  below,  and  frequently  through  a  cylin- 
drical passage  of  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  in  length, 
projecting  from  the  spherical  nest,  exactly  like  the 
tube  of  a  chymist's  retort.  The  whole  fabric  is 
most  ingeniously  and  elegantly  woven  of  a  species 
of  very  tough  grass ;  and  the  wonderful  instinct  of 
foresight  (or  whatever  else  we  may  choose  to  call 
it)  displayed  by  the  little  architect  in  its  construc- 
tion, is  calculated  to  excite  the  highest  admiration. 
I  have  often  seen  twenty  or  more  of  these  beautiful 
nests  hanging  from  a  single  tree."* 

The  following  is  a  more  detailed  account  of  either 
the  same  or  a  similar  species. 

"The  baya,  or  bottle-nested  sparrow,"  says 
Forbes,  "  is  remarkable  for  its  pendant  nest,  brilliant 
plumage,  and  uncommon  sagacity.  These  birds  are 
found  in  most  parts  of  Hindostan ;  in  shape  they 
resemble  the  sparrow,  as  also  in  the  brown  feathers 
of  the  back  and  wings ;  the  head  and  breast  of  a 
bright  yellow,  and  in  the  rays  of  a  tropical  sun  have 
a  splendid  appearance,  when  flying  by  thousands  in 
the  same  grove ;  they  make  a  chirping  noise,  but  have 
no  song  ;  they  associate  in  large  communities,  and 
cover  extensive  clumps  of  palmyras,  acacias,  and 
date-trees  with  their  nests.  These  are  formed  in  a 
very  ingenious  manner,  by  long  grass  woven  to- 
gether in  the  shape  of  a  bottle,  and  suspended  by 
the  other  end  to  the  extremity  of  a  flexible  branch, 
the  more  effectually  to  secure  the  eggs  and  young 
brood  from  serpents,  monkeys,  squirrels,  and  birds 
of  prey.  These  nests  contain  several  apartments, 
appropriated  to  different  purposes :  in  one  the  hen 
*  Pringle's  Ephemerides,  Notes. 


70 


THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 


performs  the  office  of  incubation ;  another,  consist- 
ing of  a  little  thatched  roof  and  covering  a  perch, 
without  a  bottom,  is  occupied  by  the  male,  who,  with 
his  chirping  note,  cheers  the  female  during  her  ma- 
ternal duties." 


Nest  of  the  Baya. 

The  sociable  grosbeak  (Loxia  soda)  seems  to  ex- 
cel both  the  preceding  species  in  the  extent,  if  not 
in  the  skill,  of  its  workmanship.  "  I  observed,"  says 
Vaillant,  "  on  the  way  a  tree  with  an  enormous  nest 
of  those  birds  to  which  I  have  given  the  appellation 


THE    SOCIABLE    GROSBEAK. 


71 


Nests  of  the  Sociable  Grosbeak  (Loxia  soda). 

of  republicans ;  and,  as  soon  as  I  arrived  at  my  camp, 
I  despatched  a  few  men,  with  a  wagon,  to  bring  it  to 
me,  that  I  might  open  the  hive,  and  examine  its 
structure  in  its  minutest  parts.  When  it  arrived,  I 
cut  it  to  pieces  with  a  hatchet,  and  saw  that  the  chief 
portion  of  the  structure  consisted  of  a  mass  of  Bosh- 
man's  grass,  without  any  mixture,  but  so  compact 
and  firmly  basketed  together  as  to  be  impenetrable 
to  the  rain.  This  is  the  commencement  of  the  struc- 
ture ;  and  each  bird  builds  its  particular  nest  under  this 
canopy.  But  the  nests  are  formed  only  beneath  the 
eaves  of  the  canopy,  the  upper  surface  remaining 
void,  without,  however,  being  useless ;  as  it  has 
a  projecting  rim  and  is  a  little  inclined,  it  serves  to 
let  the  rain-water  run  off,  and  preserves  each  little 
dwelling  from  the  rain.  Figure  to  yourself  a  huge 


72  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

irregular  sloping  roof,  and  all  the  eaves  of  which  are 
completely  covered  with  nests,  crowded  one  against 
another,  and  you  will  have  a  tolerable  accurate  idea 
of  these  singular  edifices. 

"  Each  individual  nest  is  three  or  four  inches  in 
diameter,  which  is  sufficient  for  the  bird.  But  as 
they  are  all  in  contact  with  one  another  around  the 
eaves,  they  appear  to  the  eye  to  form  but  one  build- 
ing, and  are  distinguishable  from  each  other  only  by 
a  little  external  aperture,  which  serves  as  an  entrance 
to  the  nest ;  and  even  this  is  sometimes  common  to 
three  different  nests,  one  of  which  is  situated  at  the 
bottom,  and  the  other  two  at  the  sides.  According 
to  Paterson,  the  number  of  cells  increasing  in  pro- 
portion to  the  increase  of  inhabitants,  the  old  ones 
become  '  streets  of  communication,  formed  by  line 
and  level.'  "* 


CHAPTER  VII. 

WEAVER    AND    TAILOR    BIRDS. 

THE  captain  of  a  ship,  who  had  collected  about 
forty  birds  from  Madagascar,  Senegal,  and  other 
parts  of  the  African  coast,  brought  to  France  two 
of  the  weaver  orioles  (Ploceus  textor,  CUVIER), 
which  he  called  Senegal  chaffinches,  and  which  are 
the  only  individuals  we  believe  hitherto  described 
by  naturalists.  They  appeared  to  be  of  different 
ages,  the  elder  having  a  kind  of  crown,  which  ap- 
peared in  sunlight  of  a  glossy  golden-brown  col- 
our; but  at  the  autumnal  moult  this  disappeared, 
leaving  the  head  of  a  yellow  colour,  though  its 
golden  brown  was  always  renewed  in  the  spring  of 
*  Vaillant's  Trav.,  2d  series,  vol.  iii. 


THE   WEAVER    ORIOLE.  73 

every  successive  year.  The  principal  colour  of 
the  body  was  yellowish  orange,  but  the  wings  and 
tail  had  a  blackish  ground.  The  younger  bird  had 
not  the  golden  brown  on  the  head  till  the  end  of 
the  second  year,  which  occasioned  the  excusable 
mistake  of  supposing  it  to  be  a  female,  as  it  is  one 
of  the  characteristics  of  female  birds  to  preserve 
for  a  long  time  the  marks  of  youth.  The  two 
birds  were  kept  in  the  same  cage,  and  lived  at  first 
upon  the  best  terms  with  one  another,  the  younger 
generally  sitting  on  the  highest  bar,  holding  its  bill 
close  to  the  other,  which  it  answered  by  clapping 
its  wings,  and  with  a  submissive  air. 

Having  been  observed  in  the  spring  to  interweave 
chickweed  into  the  wirework  of  their  cage,  it  was 
imagined  to  be  an  indication  of  their  desire  to  nes- 
tle ;  and  accordingly,  upon  being  supplied  with  fine 
rushes,  they  built  a  nest  so  capacious  as  to  conceal 
one  of  them  entirely.  They  renewed  their  labour 
on  the  following  year ;  but  the  younger,  which  had 
now  acquired  its  full  plumage,  was  driven  off  by 
the  other  from  the  nest  first  begun.  Determined, 
however,  not  to  be  idle,  it  commenced  one  for  itself 
in  the  opposite  corner  of  the  cage.  The  elder, 
however,  did  not  relish  this,  and,  continuing  his  per- 
secution, they  were  separated.  They  went  on 
working  at  their  several  buildings ;  but  what  was 
built  one  day  was  generally  destroyed  the  next. 
Latham  tell  us  that  one  of  them,  "  having  by  chance 
got  a  bit  of  sewing  silk,  wove  it  among  the  wires, 
which  being  observed,  more  was  put  into  the  cage, 
when  the  bird  interlaced  the  whole,  but  very  con- 
fusedly, so  as  to  hinder  the  greater  part  of  one  side 
of  the"  cage  from  being  seen  through  :  it  was  found 
to  prefer  green  and  yellow  to  any  other  colour."* 

It  seems  difficult  to  conceive  in  what  manner  a 
bird  could  ever  be  able  to  interweave  materials  in 
*  Gen.  Hist,  of  Birds,  iii.,  p.  117. 
G 


74  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF   BIRDS. 

/ 

the  manner  just  described,  with  no  other  instrument 
than  its  bill ;  for  it  does  not  appear  that  the  feet  are 
brought  into  use  in  the  work.  In  every  species  of 
weaving  practised  by  our  mechanics,  the  cross 
thread  or  weft  is  passed  between  the  warp  or  straight 
threads  by  means  of  a  shuttle  which  goes  complete- 
ly through ;  but  it  is  very  obvious  that  a  bird  could 
not  use  its  bill  in  this  manner,  much  less  its  entire 
body,  which,  in  all  known  instances  of  weaver-birds, 
is  much  too  bulky  for  this  purpose.  We  need  not, 
however,  go  to  Senegal  for  specimens  of  the  art  of 
weaving  among  birds.  There  are  few  of  those  who 
build  their  nests  with  any  degree  of  neatness,  that 
do  not,  in  some  part  of  the  structure,  exhibit  more  or 
less  of  this  peculiar  skill.  Even  those  which  make 
very  slender  nests  are  sometimes  most  solicitous  to 
interweave  their  materials. 

Take  any  of  the  nests  of  the  common  small  birds, 
which  line  the  interior  with  hair,  and  remove  the 
outer  basketing  of  hay  or  roots,  or  the  feltwork  of 
moss  and  wool,  and  there  will  remain  a  circular 
piece  of  haircloth  of  various  workmanship,  accord- 
ing to  the  ingenuity  of  the  bird  and  the  materials 
which  it  has  been  able  to  procure.  The  American 
kingbird  (Tyrannus  intrepidus,  VIEILL.)  first  forms  a 
sort  of  basket  framework  of  slender  twigs,  and  the 
withered  flower-tops  of  the  rosy  yarrow  (Achillea 
asplcnifolia,  PERS.)  and  other  plants,  which  are 
afterward  woven  together  with  wool  and  tow,  and 
lined  with  interweavings  of  hair  and  dry  fibrous 
grass.  A  bird  of  the  same  family,  the  white-eyed 
fly-catcher  (M.  cantatrix,  BARTRAM),  constructs  a 
neat  conical  hanging  nest,  "  suspended,"  says  Wil- 
son, "  by  the  upper  edge  of  the  two  sides,  on  the 
circular  bend  of  a  prickly  vine,  a  species  of  smilax 
that  generally  grows  in  low  thickets.  Outwardly 
it  is  constructed  of  various  light  materials,  bits  of 
rotten  wood,  fibres  of  dry  stalks  of  weeds,  pieces 
of  papers,  commonly  newspapers,  an  article  almost 


THE  BALTIMORE    STARLING.  75 

always  found  about  its  nest,  so  that  some  of  my 
friends  have  given  it  the  name  of  the  politician; 
all  these  substances  are  interwoven  with  the  silk 
of  caterpillars,  and  the  inside  is  lined  with  fine  dry 
grass  and  hair." 

But  by  far  the  most  celebrated  nest  of  this  kind  is 
that  of  the  Baltimore  starling  (Icterus  Baltimore). 
We  shall  give  Wilson's  account  entire. 

"  Almost  the  whole  genus  of  orioles,"  says  he, 
"belong  to  America,  and,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
build  pensile  nests.  Few  of  them,  however,  equal 
the  Baltimore  in  the  construction  of  these  receptacles 
for  their  young,  and  in  giving  them,  in  such  a  supe- 
rior degree,  convenience,  warmth,  and  security.  For 
these  purposes  he  generally  fixes  on  the  high  bending 
extremities  of  the  branches,  fastening  strong  strings 
of  hemp  or  flax  round  two  forked  twigs  correspond- 
ing to  the  intended  width  of  the  nest ;  with  the  same 
materials,  mixed  with  quantities  of  loose  tow,  he  in- 
terweaves or  fabricates  a  strong,  firm  kind  of  cloth, 
not  unlike  the  substance  of  a  hat  in  its  raw  state, 
forming  it  into  a  pouch  of  six  or  seven  inches  in 
depth,  lining  it  substantially  with  various  soft  sub- 
stances, well  interwoven  with  the  outward  netting, 
and,  lastly,  finishes  with  a  layer  of  horsehair,  the 
whole  being  shaded  from  the  sun  and  rain  by  a  nat- 
ural penthouse  or  canopy  of  leaves.  As  to  a  hole 
being  left  in  the  side  for  the  young  to  be  fed  and  void 
their  excrements  through,  as  Pennant  and  others  re- 
late, it  certainly  is  an  error :  I  have  never  met  with 
anything  of  the  kind  in  the  nest  of  the  Baltimore. 
Though  birds  of  the  same  species  have,  generally 
speaking,  a  common  form  of  building,  yet,  contrary 
to  the  usually  received  opinion,  they  do  not  build 
exactly  in  the  same  manner.  As  much  difference 
will  be  found  in  the  style,  neatness,  and  finishing 
of  the  nests  of  the  Baltimores  as  in  their  voices. 
Some  appear  far  superior  workmen  to  others,  and 
probably  age  may  improve  them  in  this  as  it  does 


76  THE   ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

in  their  colours.  I  have  a  number  of  their  nests 
now  before  me,  all  completed  and  with  eggs.  One 
of  these,  the  neatest,  is  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder,  of 
five  inches  diameter,  and  seven  inches  in  depth, 
rounded  at  bottom.  The  opening  at.  top  is  narrowed 


Baltimore  Starling  (Icterus  Baltimore)  and  Nest. 

by  a  horizontal  covering  to  two  inches  and  a  half  in 
diameter.  The  materials  are  flax,  hemp,  tow,  hair, 
and  wool,  woven  into  a  complete  cloth,  the  whole 
tightly  sewed  through  and  through  with  long  horse- 
hairs, several  of  which  measure  two  feet  in  length. 
The  bottom  is  composed  of  thick  tufts  of  cowhair, 
sewed  also  with  strong  horsehair.  This  nest  was 


THE    BALTIMORE    STARLING.  77 

hung  on  the  extremity  of  the  horizontal  branch  of 
an  apple-tree,  fronting  the  southeast,  was  visible 
one  hundred  yards  oft',  though  shaded  by  the  sun,  and 
was  the  work  of  a  very  beautiful  and  perfect  bird. 
The  eggs  are  five,  white,  slightly  tinged  with  flesh- 
colour,  marked  on  the  greater  end  with  purple  dots, 
and  on  the  other  parts  with  long  hairlike  lines,  in- 
tersecting each  other  in  a  variety  of  directions.  I 
am  thus  minute  in  these  particulars  from  a  wish  to 
point  out  the  specific  difference  between  the  true  and 
bastard  Baltimore,  which  Dr.  Latham  and  some 
others  suspect  to  be  only  the  same  bird  in  different 
stages  of  colour. 

"  So  solicitous  is  the  Baltimore  to  procure  proper 
materials  for  his  nest,  that,  in  the  season  of  building, 
the  women  in  the  country  are  under  the  necessity 
of  narrowly  watching  their  thread  that  may  chance  to 
be  bleaching,  and  the  farmer  to  secure  his  young 
grafts,  as  the  Baltimore,  finding  the  former,  and  the 
strings  which  tie  the  latter,  so  well  adapted  for  his 
purpose,  frequently  carries  off  both ;  or  should  the 
one  be  too  heavy  and  the  other  too  firmly  tied,  he 
will  tug  at  them  a  considerable  time  before  he  gives 
up  the  attempt.  Skeins  of  silk  and  hanks  of  thread 
have  been  often  found,  after  the  leaves  were  fallen, 
hanging  round  the  Baltimore's  nest,  but  so  woven  up 
and  entangled  as  to  be  entirely  irreclaimable.  Be- 
fore the  introduction  of  Europeans  no  such  material 
could  have  been  obtained  here  ;  but,  with  the  saga- 
city of  a  good  architect,  he  has  improved  this  cir- 
cumstance to  his  advantage,  and  the  strongest  and 
best  materials  are  uniformly  found  in  those  parts  by 
which  the  whole  is  supported."* 

One  of  the  prettiest  of  the  woven  nests  is  figured 
and  described  by  Vaillant  in  his  splendid  work  on 
African  birds,  though  he  is  doubtful  what  species  of 
bird  was  the  mechanic.  The  following  is  his  ac- 
count of  this  beautiful  nest. 

*  Wilson,  Amer.  Ornith.,  i.,  26. 
G  2 


78 


THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 


"It  is,  I  believe,"  says  he,  "the  nest  of  the 
tchitrec  (Muscicapa  cristata,  LATHAM  ) ;  for  though  I 
have  never  captured  the  bird  of  this  species  on  the 
nest,  and  am  not  therefore  certain  of  the  fact,  my 
good  Klaas,  a  faithful  if  not  a  profound  observer, 
assured  me  that  it  was.  In  one  of  our  journeys 
through  a  wood  of  mimosas,  in  the  country  of  the 
Caffres,  he  discovered  and  brought  me  this  nest, 
having  seen,  he  said,  and  particularly  observed,  a 
male  and  female  tchitrec  occupied  in  constructing  it. 
It  is  remarkable  for  its  peculiar  form,  bearing  a  strong 
resemblance  to  a  small  horn,  suspended,  with  the 


Nest  of  the  Tchitrec  ?  (Muscicapa  cristata,  LATHAM). 


THE    ORCHARD    STARLING.  79 

point  downward  between  two  branches.  Its  great- 
est diameter  was  two  inches  and  a  half,  and  gradually 
diminishing  towards  the  base.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  explain  the  principle  upon  which  such  a  nest  had 
been  built,  particularly  as  three  fourths  of  it  appear- 
ed to  be  entirely  useless  and  idly  made ;  for  the  part 
which  was  to  contain  the  eggs,  and  which  was  alone 
indispensable,  was  not  more  than  three  inches  from 
the  surface.  All  the  rest  of  this  edifice,  which  was  a 
tissue  closely  and  laboriously  woven  of  slender 
threads  taken  from  the  bark  of  certain  shrubs,  seem- 
ed to  be  totally  useless.  The  interior  of  the  nest 
was  not  furnished  with  any  sort  of  soft  material, 
such  as  down,  wool,  or  hair,  but  as  the  female  had 
not  laid  her  eggs  when  Klaas  brought  it  to  me,  it  is 
probable  that  the  nest  was  not  quite  finished ;  a  fact 
indeed  proved  by  the  birds  being  still  at  work  at  the 
time.'1* 

Tailor  Birds. — It  seems  no  less  difficult  to  conceive 
in  what  manner  a.  bird  could  make  its  bill  perform 
the  office  of  a  needle  than  that  of  a  weaver's  shut- 
tle ;  yet  that  this  is  actually  done  we  have  unques- 
tionable evidence,  both  in  the  workmanship  of  the 
nests  of  more  than  one  species,  and  in  the  ocular 
testimony  of  observers  who  have  watched  the  little 
mechanics  at  work.  We  are,  however,  more  defi- 
cient in  details  upon  the  process  of  forming  nests 
by  sewing,  than  in  the  case  of  most  of  the  other 
mechanical  operations  of  birds  described  in  this 
volume,  and  therefore  our  notices  must  be  brief. 
The  most  perfect  of  these  descriptions  is  given  by 
Wilson,  respecting  the  nest  of  the  orchard  starling 
(Icterus  mutatus),  a  bird  which  has  created  no  small 
confusion  among  systematic  writers,  in  consequence 
of  the  male  not  arriving  at  its  mature  plumage  till 
the  third  summer,  which  circumstance  has  caused 
it  to  be  mistaken  by  Buffon  and  Latham  for  the  fe- 
male of  the  Baltimore  (Icterus  Baltimore).  Wilson 
*  Oiseaux  d'Afrique,  iii.,  129. 


80  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

has  cleared  up  these  mistakes  in  a  luminous  and 
satisfactory  manner,  by  coloured  figures  of  the  fe- 
male as  well  as  of  the  male,  in  its  three  different 
gradations  of  plumage ;  while  the  nest  is  so  very 
different  in  structure,  that  we  have  deemed  it  proper 
to  place  them  in  separate  chapters. 

"  These  birds"  (the  orchard  starlings),  says  Wil- 
son, "construct  their  nests  very  differently  from  the 
Baltimores.  They  are  so  particularly  fond  of  fre- 
quenting orchards,  that  scarcely  one  orchard  in  sum- 
mer is  without  them.  They  usually  suspend  their 
nest  from  the  twigs  of  the  apple-tree,  and  often 
from  the  extremities  of  the  outward  branches.  It 
is  formed  exteriorly  of  a  particular  species  of  long, 
tough,  and  flexible  grass,  knit  or  sewed  through  and 
through  in  a  thousand  directions,  as  if  actually  done 
with  a  needle.  An  old  lady  of  my  acquaintance,  to 
whom  I  was  one  day  showing  this  curious  fabrica- 
tion, after  admiring  its  texture  for  some  time,  asked 
me,  in  a  tone  between  joke  and  earnest,  whether  I 
did  not  think  it  possible  to  learn  these  birds  to  darn 
stockings.  This  nest  is  hemispherical,  three  inch- 
es deep  by  four  in  breadth ;  the  concavity  scarcely 
two  inches  deep  by  two  in  diameter.  I  had  the  cu- 
riosity to  detach  one  of  the  fibres  or  stalks  of  dried 
grass  from  the  nest,  and  found  it  to  measure  thir- 
teen inches  in  length,  and  in  that  distance  was  thir- 
ty-four times  hooked  through  and  returned,  winding 
round  and  round  the  nest !  The  inside  is  usually 
composed  of  wool,  or  the  light  downy  appendages 
attached  to  the  seeds  of  the  platanus  occidentalis 
or  buttonwood,  which  form  a  very  soft  and  commo- 
dious bed.  Here  and  there  the  outward  work  is 
extended  to  an  adjoining  twig,  round  which  it  is 
strongly  twisted,  to  give  more  stability  to  the  whole, 
and  prevent  it  from  being  overset  by  the  wind. 

"  When  they  choose  the  long  pending  branches 
of  the  weeping- willow  to  build  in,  as  they  frequent- 
ly do,  the  nest,  though  formed  of  the  same  materi- 


THE    BONANA    STARLING.  81 

als,  is  made  much  deeper  and  of  slighter  texture. 
The  circumference  is  marked  out  by  a  number  of 
these  pensile  twigs,  that  descend  on  each  side  like 
ribs,  supporting  the  whole,  their  thick  foliage  at 
the  same  time  completely  concealing  the  nest  from 
view.  The  depth  in  this  case  is  increased  to  four 
or  five  inches,  and  the  whole  is  made  much  slight- 
er. These  long  pendant  branches,  being  sometimes 
twelve  and  even  fifteen  feet  in  length,  have  a  large 
sweep  in  the  wind,  and  render  the  first  of  these  pre- 
cautions necessary  to  prevent  the  eggs  or  young 
from  being  thrown  out ;  and  the  close  shelter  afford- 
ed by  the  remarkable  thickness  of  the  foliage  is  no 
doubt  the  cause  of  the  latter.  Two  of  these  nests, 
such  as  I  have  here  described,  are  now  lying  before 
me,  and  exhibit  not  only  art  in  the  construction,  but 
judgment  in  adapting  their  fabrication  so  judiciously 
to  their  particular  situations.  If  the  actions  of  birds 
proceeded,  as  some  would  have  us  believe,  from  the 
mere  impulses  of  that  thing  called  instinct,  individ- 
uals of  the  same  species  would  uniformly  build  their 
nest  in  the  same  manner,  wherever  they  might  hap- 
pen to  fix  it ;  but  it  is  evident  from  these  just  men- 
tioned, and  a  thousand  such  circumstances,  that  they 
reason,  a  priori,  from  cause  to  consequences,  provi- 
dently managing  with  a  constant  eye  to  future  ne- 
cessity and  convenience."* 

According  to  Buffon  and  Latham,  the  bonana  star- 
ling (Icterus  bonana)  is  another  of  the  tailors.  It  in- 
habits Martinico,  Jamaica,  and  other  West  India  isl- 
ands, and  builds  a  nest  of  a  very  curious  construc- 
tion, if  it  can  justly  be  called  building.  The  mate- 
rials which  it  uses  are  fibres  and  leaves,  which  it 
shapes  into  the  fourth  part  of  a  globe,  and  sews  the 
whole  with  great  art  to  the  under  part  of  a  bonana 
leaf,  so  that  the  leaf  makes  one  side  of  the  nest.f 

But  the  most  celebrated  bird  of  this  division  is 

*  Wilson,  Amer.  Ornith.,  v.,  50. 

t  Latham,  General  Hist,  of  Birds,  iii.,  118. 


82  THE   ARCHITECTURE    OP   BIRDS. 

the  one  which  in  the  East  is,  par  excellence,  named 
the  tailor-bird  (Sylvia  sutoria,  LATH.),  the  description 
of  whose  performances  we  would  be  apt  to  suspect 
for  an  Oriental  fiction  if  we  had  not  a  number  of 
the  actual  specimens  to  prove  their  rigid  authentici- 
ty. We  do  suspect,  however,  that  these  very  spe- 
cimens have  misled  European  naturalists  a  step  be- 
yond the  truth  in  their  accounts  of  its  proceedings. 
"  The  tailor-bird,"  says  Darwin,  "  will  not  trust  its 


Nest  of  the   Tailor-bird  (Sylvia  sutoria,  LATH.)?  from  Pennants' 
figure. 


FELT-MAKING   BIRDS.  83 

nest  to  the  extremity  of  a  tender  twig,  but  makes 
one  more  advance  to  safety  by  fixing  it  to  the  leaf 
itself.  It  picks  up  a  dead  leaf  and  sews  it  to  the  side 
of  a  living  one,  its  slender  bill  being  its  needle,  and 
its  thread  some  fine  fibres ;  the  lining  consists  of 
feathers,  gossamer,  and  down ;  its  eggs  are  white ; 
the  colour  of  the  bird  light  yellow ;  its  length  three 
inches  ;  its  weight  three  sixteenths  of  an  ounce ;  so 
that  the  materials  of  the  nest  and  the  weight  of  the 
bird  are  not  likely  to  draw  down  a  habitation  so 
slightly  suspended." 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FELT-MAKING  BIRDS. 

THE  resemblance  of  the  texture  of  some  of  the 
more  elegant  nests  of  small  birds  to  that  of  a  hat  or 
a  piece  of  double-milled  woollen  cloth,  may  not 
have  struck  many  of  our  readers,  because  the  most 
compact  of  the  nests  alluded  to  feel  loose  when 
compared  with  a  hat  or  a  piece  of  thick  cloth.  But, 
when  closely  examined,  the  materials  will  be  found 
arranged  in  a  very  similar  manner,  being,  as  it  were, 
carded  into  one  another,  and  not  interwoven  thread 
by  thread  or  hair  by  hair,  as  we  have  described  to 
be  the  case  with  the  nests  of  basket-making  and 
weaver  birds. 

The  indispensable  substance  in  all  these  nests, 
how  different  soever  they  may  be  in  the  outward 
materials,  is  fine  wool,  with  which  the  moss,  lichen, 
spiders'  nests,  tufts  of  cotton,  or  bark  scales,  are 
carefully  and  neatly  felted  into  a  texture  of  wonder- 
ful uniformity.  The  wool,  of  course,  is  the  material 
by  which  this  is  effected,  no  other  substance  which 
the  bird  could  select  being  capable  of  matting  so 


84  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

nicely  together  both  its  own  fibres  and  the  coarser 
materials  which  are  intermixed  with  it  and  stuck 
over  the  whole.  In  many  of  these  nests,  though 
not  in  all  (following  the  principle  of  the  hatmaker 
in  binding  the  rim  of  a  hat),  greater  strength  is  given 
to  the  fabric  by  binding  the  whole  round  with  dry 
grass-stems,  or  more  rarely  with  slender  roots,  which 
are  partly  covered  by  the  staple  feltwork  of  moss 
and  wool.  A  circumstance  also  never  neglected, 
is  to  bind  the  nest  firmly  into  the  forks  of  the  bush 
where  it  is  placed,  by  twining  bands  of  moss,  felted 
with  wool,  round  all  the  contiguous  branches,  both 
below  and  at  the  sides. 

"  On  the  10th  of  May,  1792,"  says  Bolton,  "  I  ob- 
served a  pair  of  goldfinches  beginning  to  make  their 
nest  in  my  garden ;  they  had  formed  the  ground- 
work with  moss,  grass,  &c.,  as  usual,  but  on  my 
scattering  small  parcels  of  wool  in  different  parts  of 
the  garden,  they  in  a  great  measure  left  off  the  use 
of  their  own  stuff  and  employed  the  wool.  After- 
ward I  gave  them  cotton,  on  which  they  rejected 
the  wool,  and  proceeded  with  the  cotton  ;  the  third 
day  I  supplied  them  with  fine  down,  on  which  they 
forsook  both  the  other,  and  finished  their  work  with 
this  last  article.  The  nest,  when  completed,  was 
somewhat  larger  than  is  usually  made  by  this  bird, 
but  retained  the  pretty  roundness  of  figure  and  neat- 
ness of  workmanship  which  is  proper  to  the  gold- 
finch. The  nest  was  completed  in  the  space  of 
three  days,  and  remained  unoccupied  for  the  space 
of  four  days,  the  first  egg  not  being  laid  till  the  sev- 
enth day  from  beginning  the  work." 

Vaillant  has  given  more  than  one  narrative  of  no 
little  interest  respecting  the  proceedings  of  several 
species  of  birds,  which  construct  nests  of  feltwork 

in  Southern  Africa.  The  pine-pine  (Parus ), 

which  is  one  of  these,  may  appear,  from  a  portion 
of  his  account,  to  rank  among  our  weaver-birds.  It 


THE    PINOPINC.  85 

may  be  remarked,  however,  that  the  cloth  which  it 
fabricates  is  not  woven,  but  felted. 

"  The  nest  of  the  pine-pine,"  says  Vaillant,  "  is 
usually  placed  among  prickly  shrubs,  particularly  the 
mimosas,  but  sometimes  on  the  extreme  branches  of 
trees.  It  is  commonly  very  large,  though  some  are 
larger  than  others  ;  but  the  difference  is  only  in  the 
external  appearance ;  in  the  interior  they  are  almost 
of  the  same  dimensions,  namely,  from  three  to  four 
inches  in  diameter,  while  the  circumference  of  the 
exterior  is  often  more  than  a  foot.  As  the  nest  is 
wholly  composed  of  the  down  of  plants,  it  is  either 
of  a  snowy  whiteness  or  of  a  brownish  colour,  ac- 
cording to  the  quality  of  the  down  which  is  produced 
by  the  neighbouring  shrubs.  On  the  outside  it  ap- 
pears to  be  constructed  in  an  irregular  and  clumsy 
manner,  according  to  the  situation  of  the  branches 
upon  which  it  is  built,  and  to  which  it  is  so  firmly  at- 
tached, part  of  them  passing  through  its  texture,  that 
it  is  impossible  to  remove  it  without  leaving  one  half 
behind.  If,  however,  the  nest  have  the  appearance 
on  the  outside  of  being  badly  made,  we  shall  be  the 
more  surprised,  on  looking  into  the  interior,  that  so 
small  a  creature,  without  other  instrument  than  its 
bill,  its  wings,  and  tail,  could  have  wrought  vegeta- 
ble down  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  it  as  united 
and  of  as  fine  a  texture  as  cloth,  even  of  good  qual- 
ity. The  nest  in  question  is  entirely  of  a  round 
form,  has  a  narrow  neck  made  in  its  upper  part,  by 
which  means  the  bird  glides  into  the  interior.  At 
the  base  of  this  corridor  there  is  a  niche  that  has 
the  appearance  of  a  small  nest  resting  against  the 
large  one  ;  and  at  the  Cape  it  is  generally  supposed 
that  this  niche  was  made  expressly  for  the  male  to 
sit  upon,  in  order  to  keep  watch  while  the  female  is 
hatching  her  eggs,  and  that  he  may  apprize  her  of 
danger  when  she  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  nest  and 
unable  to  observe  an  enemy  on  the  outside.  This 
idea,  I  must  confess,  is  rather  ingenious  ;  but  I  have 
H 


86  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

ascertained  that  this  sort  of  niche  is  not  contrived 
for  any  such  purpose.  The  male,  indeed,  sits  on  the 
eggs  as  well  as  the  female,  and  when  either  of  them 
is  thus  occupied,  the  other  never  remains  as  a  sen- 
tinel at  the  nest.  I  am  quite  confident  of  this,  from 
having  found  at  least  a  hundred  of  these  nests,  and 
having  watched  and  observed  the  birds  for  whole 
mornings  together.  This  little  recess  appears  to  be 
nothing  more  that  a  perch,  by  means  of  which  the 
pine-pine  may  pass  more  easily  into  its  nest,  which, 
without  such  a  contrivance,  it  might  find  some  dif- 
ficulty of  accomplishing,  as  it  could  not  move  through 
so  small  an  opening  on  the  wing ;  and  as  the  outside 
of  the  nest  is  slightly  formed,  it  would  injure  it  were 
the  bird  constantly  to  rest  upon  it,  while  this  little 
space  is  as  strongly  built  as  the  interior  of  the  nest. 
To  give  it  the  required  solidity,  the  bird  has  no  other 
means  than  beating  with  its  wings,  and  turning  its 
body  in  different  directions,  as  I  have  elsewhere 
related  of  the  capocier.  In  consequence  of  this 
method  of  working,  the  work  must  necessarily  be 
rounded  and  have  the  appearance  of  a  very  small 
nest;  a  circumstance  which  has  led  to  the  belief 
that  it  was  made  solely  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  male.  This,  however,  is  so*far  from  being  the 
fact,  that  when  a  branch  is  so  situated  as  to  render 
the  entrance  into  the  nest  easy,  the  little  cell  is  not 
found ;  and,  besides,  I  found  several  of  these  nests 
with  two  or  three  perches,  and  others  in  which  the 
perch  had  little  of  the  form  of  a  small  nest. 

"  In  general,  these  perch-cells  are  so  narrow  that 
the  bird,  small  as  it  is,  could  not  well  rest  upon 
them ;  and  it  would  be  much  more  difficult  for  the 
bird  to  which  Sonnerat  attributes  this  nest.  Besides, 
as  I  have  already  stated,  I  examined  the  proceedings 
of  these  birds  whenever  an  opportunity  occurred, 
and  never  once  observed  one  placed  in  th  eniche  as 
a  watchbird ;  but  I  have  seen  the  male  and  female, 
on  arriving  at  the  nest,  perch  themselves  on  the 


THE    PINOPINC. 


87 


nearest  bough,  hop  from  this  upon  the  edge  of  the 
perch-cell,  and  then,  thrusting  their  heads  into  the 
hole,  dart  into  the  nest. 

"  These  birds  are  so  tame  that  there  is  no  need 
to  stand  at  a  distance  in  order  to  watch  and  observe 
them  at  leisure,  since  they  will  enter  in  their  nest 
although  any  one  be  near  them.  This  is  particularly 


The  Nest  of  the  Pine-Pine  (Parus 


88  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

the  case  in  the  wildest  districts,  where  they  are  not 
disturbed  by  children.  Nevertheless,  I  was  never 
able  to  surprise  them  in  the  nest,  not  even  during  the 
night,  because  it  is  invariably  placed  in  the  midst  of 
brambles,  and  cannot  be  approached  without  disturb- 
ing them  ;  it  is  never  built  in  an  isolated  bush,  but 
always  in  the  midst  of  a  clump  of  bushes  difficult  of 
access. 

"  It  is  also  remarkable,  that  the  first  nest  of  a  very 
young  pair  is  never  so  large  nor  so  well  constructed 
as  those  which  they  afterward  make ;  an  observa- 
tion which,  I  think,  holds  very  generally  in  respect  of 
birds. 

"  A  nest  so  commodious  and  soft  as  that  of  the 
pine-pine  is  envied  by  many  birds  which  are  unhap- 
pily superior  to  it  in  strength,  and  which,  after  having 
broken  its  eggs  and  compelled  it  to  flight,  despoil 
its  habitation.  Thus  it  frequently  happens,  that 
when  a  pair  of  pine-pines  have  finished  the  work- 
manship of  their  little  nest,  and  even  sometimes 
after  having  made  several  of  these,  they  have  not 
had  the  pleasure  of  possessing  an  asylum  for  their 
young.  A  sad  example  of  what  is  seen  in  the  affairs 
of  men,  among  whom  the  most  powerful  have  exer- 
cised absolute  dominion  and  obliged  the  weaker  to 
obey."* 

We  may  with  great  propriety  place  here  the 
smallest  and  prettiest  nests  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted, those  of  the  humming-birds  (Troetilidte, 
VIGORS),  with  whose  appearance  many  of  our  readers 
may  be  familiar,  as  they  are  by  no  means  uncom- 
mon in  museums,  their  extreme  neatness  of  execu- 
tion and  their  minute  size  causing  them  to  be  highly 
prized.  By  far  the  best  description  of  these  which 
we  have  met  with,  is  that  by  Wilson  of  the  red- 
throated  humming-bird  (  Trochilus  colubris).  "  About 
the  25th  of  April,"  he  says,  "  the  humming-bird 
usually  arrives  in  Pennsylvania,  and  about  the  10th 
*  Oiseaux  d'Afrique,  vol.  iii.,  p.  91. 


THE    RED-THROATED    HUMMING-BIRD.       89 

of  May  begins  to  build  its  nest.  This  is  generally 
fixed  on  the  upper  side  of  a  horizontal  branch,  not 
among  the  twigs,  but  on  the  body  of  the  branch  it- 
self. Yet  I  have  known  instances  where  it  was 
attached  by  the  side  to  an  old  moss-grown  trunk, 
and  others  where  it  was  fastened  on  a  strong  rank 
stalk  or  weed  in  the  garden ;  but  these  cases  are 
rare.  In  the  woods  it  very  often  chooses  a  white- 
oak  sapling  to  build  on,  and  in  the  orchard  or  garden 
selects  a  pear-tree  for  that  purpose.  The  branch 
is  seldom  more  than  ten  feet  from  the  ground.  The 
nest  is  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  as  much  in 
depth.  A  very  complete  one  is  now  lying  before 


Nest  of  the  Humming- Bird. 

me,  and  the  materials  of  which  it  is  composed  are 
as  follows  :  The  outward  coat  is  formed  of  small 
pieces  of  a  species  of  bluish-gray  lichen  that  vege- 
tates on  old  trees  and  fences,  thickly  glued  on  with 
the  saliva  of  the  bird,  giving  firmness  and  consist- 
ency to  the  whole,  as  well  as  keeping  out  moisture. 


90  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

Within  this  are  thick  matted  layers  of  the  fine 
wings  of  certain  flying  seeds  closely  laid  together : 
and,  lastly,  the  downy  substance  from  the  great 
mullein  and  from  the  stalks  of  the  common  fern 
lines  the  whole.  The  base  of  the  nest  is  continued 
round  the  stem  of  the  branch,  to  which  it  closely 
adheres,  and,  when  viewed  from  below,  appears  a 
mere  mossy  knot  or  accidental  protuberance.  The 
eggs  are  two,  pure  white,  and  of  equal  thickness  at 
both  ends.  On  a  person's  approaching  their  nest  the 
little  proprietors  dart  around  with  a  humming  sound, 
passing  frequently  within  a  few  inches  of  his  head ; 
and  should  the  young  be  newly  hatched,  the  female 
will  resume  her  place  upon  the  nest,  even  while  you 
stand  within  a  yard  or  two  of  the  spot.  The  precise 
period  of  incubation  I  am  unable  to  give ;  but  the 
young  are  in  the  habit,  a  short  time  before  they  leave 
the  nest,  of  thrusting  their  bills  into  the  mouths  of 
their  parents,  and  sucking  what  they  have  brought 
them.  I  never  could  perceive  that  they  carried 
them  any  animal  food,  though  I  think  it  highly  prob- 
able they  do.  As  I  have  found  their  nests  with 
eggs  so  late  as  the  12th  of  July,  I  do  not  doubt  but 
that  they  frequently,  and  perhaps  usually,  raise  two 
broods  in  the  same  season."* 

But  as  there  would  be  no  end  to  our  enumeration 
of  every  individual  bird  which  exhibits  skill  in  felting 
together  the  materials  of  their  nests,  we  think  it 
will  be  more  interesting  to  our  readers  to  conclude 
this  chapter  with  the  lively  narrative  which  Yaillant 
has  given  of  the  proceedings  of  a  pair  of  small  Afri- 
can birds. 

This  romantic  though  accurate  naturalist  had  con- 
trived, by  tempting  titbits,  to  render  the  species  al- 
luded to,  which  he  calls  the  Capocier  (Sylvia  ma- 
croura,  LATHAM),  so  familiar,  that  a  pair  of  these 
birds  regularly  entered  his  tent  several  times  a  day, 

*  Wilson,  Amer.  Orinth.,  ii.,  18. 


THE    CAPOCIER.  91 

and  even  seemed  to  recognise  him  in  the  adjacent 
thickets  as  he  passed  along.  "  The  breeding  sea- 
son," he  goes  on,  "  had  no  sooner  arrived,  than  I 
perceived  the  visits  of  my  two  little  guests  to  be- 
come less  frequent,  though,  whether  they  sought 
solitude  the  better  to  mature  their  plans,  or  whether, 
as  the  rains  had  ceased  and  insects  became  so  abun- 
dant that  my  titbits  were  less  relished,  I  cannot  tell, 
but  they  seldom  made  their  appearance  for  four  or 
five  successive  days,  after  which  they  unexpectedly 
returned,  and  it  was  not  long  before  1  discovered  the 
motives  that  had  brought  them  back.  During  their 
former  visits  they  had  not  failed  to  observe  the  cot- 
ton, moss,  and  flax  which  I  used  to  stuff  my  birds 
with,  and  which  were  always  lying  on  my  table. 
Finding  it,  no  doubt,  much  more  convenient  to  come 
and  furnish  themselves  with  these  articles  there 
than  to  go  and  pick  the  down  from  the  branches  of 
plants,  I  saw  them  carry  away  in  their  beaks  par- 
cels of  these  much  larger  in  bulk  than  themselves. 

"  Having  followed  and  watched  them,  I  found  the 
place  which  they  had  selected  for  constructing  the 
cradle  which  should  contain  their  infant  progeny. 
In  a  corner  of  a  retired  and  neglected  garden  be- 
longing to  the  good  Slaber  there  grew,  by  the  side 
of  a  small  spring  beneath  the  shelter  of  the  only  tree 
which  ornamented  that  retreat,  a  high  plant,  called 
by  the  colonists  of  the  Cape  Capoc-boschc.  Tn  this 
shrub  they  had  already  laid  a  part  of  the  foundation 
with  moss,  the  fork  of  the  branches  chosen  for  the 
reception  of  the  nest  being  already  bedded  there- 
with. The  first  materials  were  laid  on  the  llth  of 
October.  The  second  day's  labour  presented  a  rude 
mass,  about  four  inches  in  thickness,  and  from  five 
to  six  inches  in  diameter.  This  was  the  foundation 
of  the  nest,  which  was  composed  of  moss  and  flax, 
interwoven  with  grass  and  tufts  of  cotton. 

"  I  passed  the  whole  of  the  second  day  by  the  side 
of  the  nest,  which  the  female  never  quitted  from  the 


92  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OP   BIRDS. 

moment  my  windows  were  opened  in  the  morning 
till  nearly  ten  o'clock,  and  from  five  o'clock  in  the 
evening  till  seven.  On  the  morning  of  the  12th,  the 
male  made  twenty-nine  journeys  to  my  room,  and 
in  the  evening  only  seventeen.  He  gave  great  as- 
sistance to  the  female  in  trampling  down  and  press- 
ing the  cotton  with  his  body,  in  order  to  make  it 
into  a  sort  of  felt  work. 

"When  the  male  arrived  with  parcels  of  moss 
and  cotton,  he  deposited  his  load  either  on  the  edge 
of  the  nest  or  upon  branches  within  the  reach  of  the 
female.  He  made  four  or  five  trips  of  this  kind 
without  interruption,  and  then  set  about  helping  his 
mate  in  the  execution  of  her  work. 

"  This  agreeable  occupation  was  often  interrupted 
by  innocent  and  playful  gambols,  though  the  female 
appeared  to  be  so  actively  and  anxiously  employed 
about  her  building  as  to  have  less  relish  for  trifling 
than  the  male  ;  and  she  even  punished  him  for  his 
frolics  by  pecking  him  well  with  her  beak.  He,  on 
the  other  hand,  fought  in  his  turn,  pecked,  pulled 
down  the  work  which  they  had  done,  prevented  the 
female  from  continuing  her  labours,  and,  in  a  word, 
seemed  to  tell  her,  *  You  refuse  to  be  my  playmate 
on  account  of  this  work,  therefore  you  shall  not  do 
it !'  It  will  scarcely  be  credited,  that,  entirely  from 
what  I  saw  and  knew  respecting  these  little  alter- 
cations, I  was  both  surprised  and  angry  at  the  fe- 
male. In  order,  however,  to  save  the  fabric  from 
spoliation,  she  left  off  working,  and  fled  from  bush 
to  bush  for  the  express  purpose  of  teasing  him. 
Soon  afterward,  having  made  matters  up  again,  the 
female  returned  to  her  labour,  and  the  male  sung 
during  several  minutes  in  the  most  animated  strains. 
After  his  song  was  concluded  he  began  again  to 
occupy  himself  with  the  work,  and  with  fresh  ar- 
dour carried  such  materials  as  his  companion  re- 
quired, till  the  spirit  of  frolic  again  became  buoyant, 
and  a  scene  similar  to  that  which  I  have  just  de- 


THE    CAPOCIER.  93 

scribed  recurred.  I  have  witnessed  eight  interrup- 
tions of  this  kind  in  one  morning.  How  happy  birds 
are !  They  are  certainly  the  privileged  creatures 
of  nature,  thus  to  work  and  sport  alternately  as 
fancy  prompts  them. 

"  On  the  third  day  the  birds  began  to  rear  the 
side  walls  of  the  nest,  after  having  rendered  the 
bottom  compact  by  repeatedly  pressing  the  materi- 
als with  their  breasts,  and  turning  themselves  round 
upon  them  in  all  directions.  They  first  formed  a 
plain  border,  which  they  afterward  trimmed,  and 
upon  this  they  piled  up  tufts  of  cotton,  which  was 
felted  into  the  structure  by  beating  and  pressing  with 
their  breasts  and  the  shoulders  of  their  wings,  taking 
care  to  arrange  any  projecting  corner  with  their 
beaks  so  as  to  interlace  it  into  the  tissue  and  ren- 
der it  more  firm.  The  contiguous  branches  of  the 
bush  were  enveloped,  as  the  work  proceeded,  in  the 
side  walls,  but  without  deranging  the  circular  cavity 
of  the  interior.  This  part  of  the  nest  required  many 
materials,  so  that  I  was  quite  astonished  at  the 
quantity  which  they  used. 

"  On  the  seventh  day  their  task  was  finished ;  and, 
anxious  to  examine  the  interior,  I  determined  to  in- 
troduce my  finger,  when  I  felt  an  egg  that  had  prob- 
ably been  laid  that  morning,  for  on  the  previous 
evening  I  could  see  there  was  no  egg  in  it,  as  it  was 
not  quite  covered  in.  This  beautiful  edifice,  which 
was  as  white  as  snow,  was  nine  inches  in  height  on 
the  outside,  while  in  the  inside  it  was  not  more  than 
five.  Its  external  form  was  very  irregular  on  ac- 
count of  the  branches  which  it  had  been  found  ne- 
cessary to  enclose ;  but  the  inside  exactly  resem- 
bled a  pullet's  egg  placed  with  the  small  end  up- 
ward. Its  greatest  diameter  was  five  inches,  and 
the  smallest  four.  The  entrance  was  two  thirds  of 
the  whole  height,  as  seen  on  the  outside ;  but  within 
it  almost  reached  the  arch  of  the  ceiling  above. 

"  The  interior  of  this  nest  was  so  neatly  worked 


94  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

and  felted  together,  that  it  might  have  been  taken 
for  a  piece  of  fine  cloth  a  little  worn,  the  tissue  be- 
ing so  compact  and  close  that  it  would  have  been  im- 
possible to  detach  a  particle  of  the  materials  with- 
out tearing  the  texture  to  pieces  ;  yet  was  this  only 
effected  by  the  process  which  I  have  already  de- 


Ntsl  of  the  Capocier  (Sylvia  macroura,  LATHAM),  from  Vaittanfs 
figure. 


CEMENTERS.  95 

scribed ;  and  it  must  be  confessed  that  it  was  a  work 
truly  admirable,  considering  the  instruments  of  the 
little  mechanics."* 


CHAPTER  IX. 


CEMENTERS. 

ONE  of  the  old  classifications  of  birds  ranged  them 
in  three  divisions,  the  first  comprehending  those 
which  muddled  in  the  dust ;  the  second,  those  which 
washed  in  the  water ;  and  the  third,  those  which  did 
both.  A  division,  something  upon  the  same  princi- 
ple, with  regard  to  the  building  of  nests,  would  com- 
prehend, in  the  first  class,  birds  which  used  no  sali- 
vary cement ;  in  the  second,  those  which  did ;  and 
in  the  third,  those  which  used  it  only  in  a  portion, 
not  the  whole  of  their  structures.  In  no  circum- 
stance of  nest-building  has  there  been  more  error 
promulgated  in  books  of  natural  history  than  with 
respect  to  this  cement,  few  naturalists  seeming  to 
be  aware  of  its  existence ;  but  finding  nests  so  neat- 
ly compacted,  and  their  parts  adhering  firmly  to 
one  another  as  well  as  to  walls  and  boughs  of  trees, 
authors  think  it  requisite  to  name  some  adhesive 
material  by  which  this  is  accomplished  ;  and,  when 
there  is  no  clay  in  the  edifice,  spiders'  web  is  the 
substance  generally  fixed  upon.  We  do  not  indeed 
deny  that  both  the  webs  of  spiders  and  of  the  social 
caterpillars  are  partly  employed  by  some  birds ; 
but  this  is  by  no  means  an  occurrence  common  to 
all  the  small,  neatly-built  nests  of  our  song-birds  and 
some  others,  as  we  are  taught  in  books  to  believe. 
As  this  very  point  involves  one  of  the  most  curious 
discussions  connected  with  the  subject  of  nests,  we 

*  Oiseaux  d'Afrique,  iii.,  77,  &c. 


96  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

shall  begin  with  one  about  which  there  can  be  the 
least  dispute.  We  are  furnished  with  an  instance 
well  adapted  for  this  purpose  in  the  American  chim- 
ney-swallow (Cypselus  pelasgius,  LATHAM). 

\yilson  has  given  the  following  very  interesting 
history  of  their  mode  of  nestling.  "  They  arrive," 
he  says,  "  in  Pennsylvania  late  in  April  or  early  in 
May,  dispersing  themselves  over  the  whole  country, 
wherever  there  are  vacant  chimneys  in  summer  suf- 
ficiently high  and  convenient  for  their  accommoda- 
tion. In  no  other  situation  with  us  are  they  observed 
at  present  to  build.  This  circumstance  naturally 
suggests  the  query,  Where  did  these  birds  construct 
their  nests  before  the  arrival  of  Europeans  in  this 
country,  when  there  were  no  such  places  for  their 
accommodation  1  I  would  answer,  probably  in  the 
same  situations  in  which  they  still  continue  to  build 
in  the  remote  regions  of  our  western  forests,  where 
European  improvements  of  this  kind  are.  scarcely 
to  be  found ;  namely,  in  the  hollow  of  a  tree,  which 
in  some  cases  has  the  nearest  resemblance  to  their 
present  choice  of  any  other.  One  of  the  first  set- 
tlers in  the  State  of  Kentucky  informed  me  that  he 
cut  down  a  large  hollow  beech-tree  which  contained 
forty  or  fifty  nests  of  the  chimney-swallow,  most 
of  which,  by  the  fall  of  the  tree  or  by  the  weather, 
were  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  hollow,  but  sufficient 
fragments  remained  adhering  to  the  sides  of  the  tree 
to  enable  him  to  number  them.  They  appeared,  he 
said,  of  some  years'  standing.  The  present  site 
which  they  have  chosen  must,  however,  hold  out 
many  more  advantages  than  the  former,  since  we 
see  that  in  the  whole  thickly-settled  parts  of  the 
United  States  these  birds  have  uniformly  adopted 
this  new  convenience,  not  a  single  pair  being  ob- 
served to  prefer  the  woods. 

"  Security  from  birds  of  prey  and  other  animals, 
from  storms  that  frequently  overthrow  the  timber, 
and  the  numerous  ready  conveniences  which  these 
new  situations  afford,  are  doubtless  some  of  the  ad- 


AMERICAN    CHIMNEY  SWALLOW.  97 

vantages.  The  choice  they  have  made  certainly 
bespeaks  something  more  than  mere  unreasoning 
instinct,  and  does  honour  to  their  discernment." 

To  the  following  passage  we  request  particular 
attention. 

"  The  nest  of  this  bird  is  of  singular  construction, 
being  formed  of  very  small  twigs  fastened  together 
with  a  strong  adhesive  glue  or  gum,  which  is  secre- 
ted by  two  glands,  one  on  each  side  of  the  hind 
head,  and  mixes  with  the  saliva.  With  this  glue, 
which  becomes  hard  as  the  twigs  themselves,  the 
whole  nest  is  thickly  besmeared.  The  nest  itself 
is  small  and  shallow,  and  attached  by  one  side  or 
edge  to  the  wall,  and  is  totally  destitute  of  the  soft 
lining  with  which  the  others  are  so  plentifully  sup- 
plied. The  eggs  are  generally  four,  and  white. 
They  generally  have  two  birds  in  the  season.  The 
young  are  fed  at  intervals  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  night,  a  fact  which  I  have  had  frequent  opportu- 
nities of  remarking,  both  here  and  in  the  Mississip- 
pi territory.  The  noise  which  the  old  ones  make 
in  passing  up  and  down  the  funnel  has  some  resem- 
blance to  distant  thunder.  When  heavy  and  long- 
continued  rains  occur,  the  nest,  losing  its  hold,  is 
precipitated  to  the  bottom.  This  disaster  frequently 
happens.  The  eggs  are  destroyed ;  but  the  young, 
though  blind  (which  they  are  for  a  considerable 
time),  sometimes  scramble  up  along  the  vent,  to 
which  they  cling  like  squirrels,  the  muscularity  of 
their  feet  and  the  sharpness  of  their  claws  at  this 
tender  age  being  remarkable.  In  this  sjtuation  they 
continue  to  be  fed  for  perhaps  a  week  or  more. 
Nay,  it  is  not  uncommon  for  them  voluntarily  to 
leave  the  nest  long  before  they  are  able  to  fly,  and 
to  fix  themselves  on  the  wall,  where  they  are  fed 
until  able  to  hunt  for  themselves."* 

Since  Wilson  seems  to  be  certain  that  the  gluti- 
nous substance  employed  by  the  American  chimney- 
*  Wilson,  Amer.  Ornith.,  v.,  50. 
I 


98  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

swallow  to  cement  the  materials  of  its  nest,  is  de- 
rived from  glands  distinguished  both  in  function  and 
situation  from  the  common  salivary  glands,  we  may 
perhaps  be  authorized  to  infer  that  similar  glands 
exist  in  the  head  of  the  swallow  called  salangane, 
and  by  naturalists  the  esculent  swallow  (Hirundo 
esculenta?  LATH.)*  As  this  singular  nest  has  for 
many  centuries  been  an  object  of  curiosity  among 
naturalists,  it  is  scarcely  credible  that  it  should  still, 
up  to  the  present  time,  remain  involved  in  mystery ; 
and,  to  use  the  words  of  Dr.  Fleming,  "  it  is  much 
to  be  regretted  that  the  recent  historians  of  those 
regions  have  added  so  little  to  its  history." 

The  earliest  modern  account  of  these  edible  nests 
which  we  have  met,  is  given  by  Bontius,  a  Dutch 
physician,  who  resided  in  Java,  and  published  some 
excellent  works  on  the  natural  history  and  diseases 
of  the  East.  "  On  the  seacoast,"  says  he,  "  of  the 
kingdom  of  China,  a  sort  of  small  particoloured 
birds,  of  the  shape  of  swallows,  at  a  certain  season 
of  the  year,  namely,  their  breeding  time,  come  out 
of  the  midland  country  to  the  rocks,  and  from  the 
foam  or  froth  of  the  seawater  dashing  and  break- 
ing against  the  bottom  of  the  rocks,  gather  a  certain 
clammy,  glutinous  matter,  perchance  the  sperm  of 
whales  or  other  fishes,  of  which  they  build  their 
nests,  wherein  they  lay  their  eggs  and  hatch  their 
young.  These  nests  the  Chinese  pluck  from  the 
rocks  and  bring  them  in  great  numbers  into  the 
East  Indies  to  sell ;  which  are  esteemed  by  gluttons 
great  delicacies,  who,  dissolving  them  in  chicken  or 
mutton  broth,  are  very  fond  of  them,  preferring  them 
far  before  oysters,  mushrooms,  or  other  dainty  and 
liquorish  morsels." 

Kircher,  Du  Halde,  and  others,  candidly  confess 
that  the  substance  composing  these  nests  is  un- 
known ;  while  others  deal  in  theoretical  conjectures. 

t  This  epithet  is  not  very  appropriate,  as  it  is  not  the  bird 
which  is  eaten,  but  its  nest. 


THE    ESCULENT    SWALLOW.  99 

Some  seem  to  suppose  they  are  made  of  shells,  de- 
scribing them  as  marked  like  these  with  ridges  and 
rugosities,  and  consisting  of  numerous  cells  as  if  a 
number  of  shells  had  been  conglutinated  together. 
Others  say  they  are  composed  of  seafoam,  or  of  the 
juice  of  a  tree  called  calambouc.  Kaempfer  again 
tells  us  he  was  assured  by  the  Chinese  fishers  that 
the  nests  are  an  artificial  production,  at  least  those 
usually  sold  being  nothing  but  a  preparation  of  ma- 
rine polypi,  as  isinglass  is  the  dried  swim-bladder  of 
the  sturgeon  (Accipenser  Huso,  and  A.  Ruthenus). 

It  seems  impossible  to  come  to  any  satisfactory 
decision  upon  statements  varying  in  so  many  im- 
portant circumstances.  Were  we  to  determine  the 
substance  employed  from  the  concurring  testimony 
of  numbers,  we  should  certainly  fix  upon  what  is  in- 
definitely called  seafoam.  Marsden,  indeed,  ex- 
pressly affirms,  that  "  the  birds,  during  their  build- 
ing-time, are  seen  in  large  flocks  on  the  beach,  col- 
lecting in  their  bills  the  foam  which  is  thrown  up  by 
the  surf.  Of  this  there  is  little  doubt,  but  they  con- 
structs their  nest,  after  it  has  undergone,  perhaps,  a 
preparation  from  a  commixture  with  the  saliva  or 
other  secretion  with  which  nature  may  have  pro- 
vided them  for  that  purpose."* 

But  in  opposition  to  this  it  is  urged  that  the  caves 
where  the  nests  are  found  are  not  always  by  the 
seaside.  Mr.  Crawford,  the  late  British  resident  at 
the  court  of  the  Sultan  of  Java,  who  superintended 
for  several  years  the  collecting  of  these  nests  at 
Karang-Bolang,  tells  us  that  "  very  productive  caves 
are  found  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  and  at  least 
fifty  miles  from  the  sea.  It  appears  probable  that 
they  are  most  abundant  on  the  seaside,  only  because 
caverns  are  there  most  frequent  and  least  liable  to 
disturbance.  This  seems  to  prove  that  seafoam,  or 
other  marine  production,  has  no  share  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  nest ;  and  the  most  probable  hypothesis  is, 
*  Marsden's  Sumatra,  i.,  260. 


100  THE   ARCHITECTURE    OF   BIRDS. 

that  the  nest  is  a  material  elaborated  from  the  food 
of  the  bird,  a  conjecture  which  would  be  proved,  if, 
on  a  skilful  dissection,  it  were  discovered  that  the 
bird  has  any  peculiar  organs  destined  to  perform 
such  a  process."* 

"  In  the  Java  swallow,"  says  Sir  Everard  Home, 
"  we  have  a  structure  of  a  particular  nature ;  there 
is  a  membranous  tube  surrounding  the  duct  of  each 
of  the  gastric  glands,  which,  after  projecting  into  the 
gullet  a  little  way,  splits  into  separate  portions  like 
the  petals  of  a  flower.  That  the  mucus  of  which 
the  nest  is  composed  is  secreted  from  the  surface  of 
these  membranous  tubes,  there  is  no  more  doubt 
than  that  the  gastric  juice  is  secreted  from  the  glands 
whose  ducts  these  tubes  surround.  For  what  pur- 
pose so  extraordinary  an  apparatus  could  be  provi- 
ded would  probably  have  puzzled  the  weak  intellects 
of  human  beings,  and  given  rise  to  many  wild  theo- 
ries, had  not  the  animal  matter  of  which  the  bird's 
nest  is  composed,  and  the  accurate  observation  of 
Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  led  to  the  discovery  of  its  use." 

Notwithstanding  this  apparently  conclusive  in- 
vestigation, however,  we  cannot  avoid  giving  the 
opinion  of  Dr.  Fleming,  who  says  that, "  though  the 
use  of  these  lobes  may  puzzle,  we  cannot  admit  that 
there  is  a  shadow  of  proof,  even  from  analogy,  to 
conclude  that  these  secrete  the  materials  of  the 
nest.*" 

It  may  give  some  solution  to  this  discrepance  to 
mention  that  M.  Lamouroux  says  positively  there 
are  three  species,  of  which  the  smallest  makes  the 
most  valuable  nest.  He  is  farther  decidedly  of  opin- 
ion, that  the  white  nests  of  the  smallest  species  are 
chiefly  composed  of  seaplants  belonging  to  his  Ge- 
lidia,  the  second  division  of  his  Thalassiophytes, 
which,  by  boiling  or  maceration,  can  be  almost  whol- 
ly reduced  to  a  gelatinous  substance.  The  larger 

*  History  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  vol.  iii.,  p.  432. 
f  Philosophy  of  Zoology,  vol.  ii.,  p.  238,  note. 


THE    ESCULENT    SWALLOW. 


101 


inland  species,  on  the  other  hand,  make  use  of  opaque 
materials,  and  never  of  marine  plants. 

It  would  be  presumptuous,  amid  so  many  conflict- 
ing opinions,  for  us  to  pronounce  at  all  upon  the  ma- 
terials of  these  nests ;  yet  we  think  it  probable  that 
M.  Lamouroux's  account  comes  nearest  the  truth. 
If  the  nests,  however,  are  formed  of  Geliadia,  they 
are  most  assuredly  cemented  with  salivary  gluten 
into  the  uniform  consistency  which  they  ultimately 
assume. 


Esculent  Swallow  and  Nest,  from  Latharius1  figure. 

The  commercial  history  of  these  singular  nests  is 
much  better  understood  than  their  composition,  in 
consequence  of  their  reputed  virtue  as  a  restorative. 
The  best  account  of  them  which  we  have  met  with 
is  given  by  Mr.  Crawfurd.  "  The  best  nests,"  he 
says,  "  are  those  obtained  in  deep,  damp  caves,  and 
I  2 


102  THE   ARCHITECTURE    OF   BIRDS. 

such  as  are  taken  before  the  birds  have  laid  their 
eggs.  The  coarsest  are  those  obtained  after  the 
young  have  been  fledged.  The  finest  nests  are  the 
whitest;  that  is,  those  taken  before  the  nest  has 
been  rendered  impure  by  the  food  and  faeces  of  the 
young  birds.  The  best  are  white,  and  the  inferior 
dark-coloured,  streaked  with  blood,  or  intermixed 
with  feathers.  It  may  be  remarked,  however,  that 
some  of  the  natives  describe  the  purer  nests  as  the 
dwelling  of  the  cock-bird,  and  always  so  designate 
them  in  commerce.  Birds'  nests  are  collected  twice 
a  year;  and,  if  regularly  collected,  and  no  unusual 
injury  be  offered  to  the  caverns,  will  produce  very 
equally,  the  quantity  being  very  little,  if  at  all,  im- 
proved by  the  caves  being  left  altogether  unmolest- 
ed for  a  year  or  two.  Some  of  the  caverns  are  ex- 
tremely difficult  of  access,  and  the  nests  can  only  be 
collected  by  persons  accustomed  from  their  youth  to 
the  office.  The  most  remarkable  and  productive 
caves  in  Java,  of  which  I  superintended  a  moiety 
of  the  collection  for  several  years,  are  those  of  Ka- 
rang-bolang,  in  the  province  of  Baglen,  on  the  south 
coast  of  the  island.  There  the  caves  are  only  to  be 
approached  by  a  perpendicular  descent  of  many 
hundred  feet,  by  ladders  of  bamboo  and  ratan,  over 
a  sea  rolling  violently  against  the  rocks.  When  the 
mouth  of  the  cavern  is  attained,  the  perilous  office 
of  taking  the  nests  must  often  be  performed  with 
torchlight,  by  penetrating  into  recesses  of  the  rock, 
when  the  slightest  trip  would  be  instantly  fatal  to 
the  adventurers,  who  see  nothing  below  them  but 
the  turbulent  surf  making  its  way  into  the  chasms 
of  the  rock.  The  only  preparation  which  the  birds' 
nests  undergo  is  that  of  simple  drying,  without  direct 
exposure  to  the  sun,  after  which  they  are  packed  in 
small  boxes  usually  of  a  picul.*  They  are  assorted 
for  the  Chinese  market  into  three  kinds,  according 

*  The  picul  is  about  135  pounds. 


THE   ESCULENT    SWALLOW.  103 

to  their  qualities,  distinguished  into  first  or  best,  sec- 
ond, and  third  qualities.  Caverns  that  are  regular- 
ly managed  will  afford,  in  100  parts,  53  3-10th  parts 
of  those  of  the  first  quality,  35  parts  of  those  of  the 
second,  11  7- 10th  parts  of  those  of  the  third.  The 
common  prices  for  birds'  nests  at  Canton  are,  for  the 
first  sort,  3500  Spanish  dollars  the  picul,  or  twenty- 
nine  dollars  per  pound ;  for  the  second,  2800  Span- 
ish dollars  per  picul ;  and  for  the  third,  no  more  than 
1600  Spanish  dollars.  In  the  Chinese  markets  a  still 
nicer  classification  of  the  edible  nests  is  often  made 
than  in  the  island.  The  whole  are  frequently  di- 
vided into  three  great  classes,  under  the  commercial 
appellation  of  Paskat,  Chi-kat,  and  Tung-tung,  each 
of  which,  according  to  quality,  is  subdivided  into 
three  inferior  orders,  and  we  have,  consequently, 
prices  varying  from  1200  Spanish  dollars  per  picul 
to  4200.  These  last,  therefore,  are  more  valuable 
than  their  weight  in  silver.  Of  the  quantity  of  birds' 
nests  exported  from  the  Indian  islands,  although  we 
cannot  state  the  exact  amount,  we  have  data  for 
hazarding  some  probable  conjectures  respecting  it. 
From  Java  there  are  exported  about  200  piculs,  or 
27,000  Ibs.,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  of  the  first 
quality.  The  greatest  part  is  from  the  Suluk  Archi- 
pelagos, and  consists  of  530  piculs.  From  Macas- 
sar there  are  sent  about  30  piculs  of  the  fine  kind. 
These  data  will  enable  us  to  offer  some  conjectures 
respecting  the  whole  quantity  ;  for  the  edible  swal- 
lows' nests  being  universally  and  almost  equally  dif- 
fused from  Junk,  Ceylon,  to  New  Guinea,  and  the 
whole  produce  going  to  one  market  and  only  by  one 
conveyance,  the  junks,  it  is  probable  that  the  average 
quantity  taken  by  each  vessel  is  not  less  than  the 
sum  taken  from  the  ports  just  mentioned.  Taking 
the  quantity  sent  from  Batavia  as  the  estimate,  we 
know  that  this  is  conveyed  by  5300  tuns  of  shipping, 
and,  therefore,  the  whole  quantity  will  be  1818  piculs, 
or  242,400  Ibs.,  as  the  whole  quantity  of  Chinese 


104  THE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

shipping  is  30,000  tuns.  In  the  Archipelago,  at  the 
prices  already  quoted,  this  propertyis  worth  1,263,519 
Spanish  dollars,  or  284,290/.  The  value  of  this 
immense  property  to  the  country  which  produces  it, 
rests  upon  the  capricious  wants  of  a  single  people. 
The  value  of  the  labour  expended  in  bringing  birds' 
nests  to  market  is  but  a  trifling  portion  of  their  price, 
which  consists  of  the  highest  price  which  the  luxu- 
rious Chinese  will  afford  to  pay  for  them,  and  which 
is  a  tax  paid  by  that  nation  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Indian  islands.  There  is,  perhaps,  no  production 
upon  which  human  industry  is  exerted,  of  which  the 
cost  of  production  bears  so  small  a  proportion  to  the 
market  price."* 


ALTHOUGH  we  have  considered  birds  as  miners,  as 
ground-builders,  as  masons,  as  carpenters,  as  plat- 
form-builders, as  basket-makers,  as  weavers,  as  tai- 
lors, as  felt-makers,  and  as  cementers,  we  have  not 
dwelt  at  much  length  upon  any  fancied  analogies 
between  their  arts  and  those  of  the  human  race. 
The  great  distinction  between  man  and  the  inferior 
animals  is  that  the  one  learns  almost  every  art  pro- 
gressively, by  his  own  experience  operating  with  the 
accumulated  knowledge  of  past  generations,  while 
the  others  work  by  a  fixed  rule,  improving  very 
little,  if  any,  during  the  course  of  their  own  lives, 
and  rarely  deviating  to-day  from  the  plans  pursued 
by  the  same  species  a  thousand  years  ago.  It  is 
true  that  the  swallow,  which  doubtless  once  built  its 
nest  in  hollow  trees,  has  now  accommodated  itself 
to  the  progress  of  human  society  by  choosing  chim- 
neys for  nestling ;  and  it  is  also  to  be  noticed  that, 
in  the  selection  of  materials,  a  great  many  birds,  as 
we  have  already  shown,  accommodate  themselves 
*  Crawford's  Indian  Archipelago,  vol.  iii. 


CONCLUSION.  105 

to  their  individual  opportunities  of  procuring  sub- 
stances differing  in  some  degree  from  those  used  in 
other  situations  by  the  same  species.  These  adapta- 
tions only  show  that  the  instinct  which  guides  them 
to  the  construction  of  the  nest  best  fitted  to  their  hab- 
its is  not  a  blind  one ;  that  it  is  very  nearly  allied  to  the 
reasoning  faculty,  if  it  is  not  identified  with  it.  But 
that  the  rule  by  which  birds  conduct  their  architec- 
tural labours  is  exceedingly  limited,  must  be  evident 
from  the  consideration  that  no  species  whatever  is 
in  a  state  of  progression  from  a  rude  to  a  polished 
style  of  construction.  There  is  nearly  as  much  dif- 
ference between  the  comparative  beauty  of  the  nests 
of  a  wood-pigeon  and  of  a  bottle-tit,  as  between  the 
hut  of  a  North  American  savage  and  a  Grecian  tem- 
ple. But  although  the  savage,  in  the  course  of  ages, 
may  attain  as  much  civilization  as  would  lead  him 
to  the  construction  of  a  new  Parthenon,  the  wood- 
pigeon  will  continue  only  to  make  a  platform  of 
sticks  to  the  end  of  time.  It  is  evident,  from  a  con- 
templation of  all  nature,  that  the  faculties  of  quad- 
rupeds, birds,  insects,  and  all  the  inferior  animals, 
are  stationary :  those  of  man  only  are  progressive. 
It  is  this  distinction  which  enables  him,  agreeably 
to  the  will  of  his  Creator,  to  "  have  dominion  over 
the  fish  of  the  sea,  and  over  the  fowl  of  the  air,  and 
over  the  cattle,  and  over  all  the  earth,  and  over  every 
creeping  thing  that  creepeth  upon  the  earth."  But 
within  their  limited  range  the  inferior  animals  per- 
form their  proper  labours  with  an  unwearied  indus- 
try and  an  unering  precision,  which  call  forth  our 
wonder  and  admiration.  Of  these  remarkable  qual- 
ities we  have  given  abundant  examples  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages ;  and  they  are  not  without  moral  in- 
struction. Elevated  as  our  minds  are  in  the  com- 
parative scale  of  nature,  we  may  still  take  example 
from  the  diligence,  the  perseverance,  and  the  cheer- 
fulness which  preside  over  the  Architecture  of  Birds. 


DOMESTIC  HABITS  OF  BIRDS. 
CHAPTER  IX. 

HABITS    OF    CLEANLINESS   IN    BIRDS. 

ANIMALS  appear  to  be  cleanly  in  proportion  to 
their  sprightliness  and  activity ;  and  small  animals, 
with  few  exceptions,  are  also  more  active  and  more 
cleanly  than  those  of  a  larger  size.  The  domestic 
habits  of  birds,  as  well  as  what  may  be  called  their 
personal  habits,  furnish  us  with  many  illustrations 
of  their  peculiar  attention  to  cleanliness,  some  of 
which  it  may  prove  interesting  to  detail.  The  in- 
stant any  of  their  feathers  are  soiled  they  set  about 
trimming  them,  and  they  are  no  less  attentive  to 
their  nests. 

It  is,  no  doubt,  the  same  uncomfortable  feeling 
which  we  experience  when  our  hair  becomes  dis- 
arranged or  tangled  that  induces  birds  to  smooth 
their  feathers ;  the  matting  together,  for  example, 
of  two  contiguous  feathers  at  the  points,  causing 
them  upon  every  motion  of  the  muscles  of  the  skin 
to  twitch  away  the  parts  from  which  they  spring. 
The  irritation  thus  produced  incites  the  bird  to  ex- 
amine the  feathers  contiguous  to  the  part ;  and  by 
nibbling  every  plumelet  with  its  beak,  it  soon  suc- 
ceeds in  bringing  them  into  their  proper  position, 
while  it  frees  them,  at  the  same  time,  from  any  ex- 
traneous matter  that  may  adhere  to  them. 

It  is  surprising  how  soon  nestling  birds  may  be 
seen  thus  trimming  themselves.  A  short  time  after 
they  are  able  to  open  their  eyes,  while  the  down 
which  covers  them  when  hatched  has  not  begun  to 


108  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

be  replaced  by  feathers,  we  have  in  numerous  in- 
stances seen  them  turning  round  their  heads  and 
going  over  all  the  tiny  bits  of  down  and  the  ends 
of  the  sprouting  feathers  within  their  reach.  This 
might  be  plausibly  supposed  to  be  rather  the  mother's 
task,  and  it  is  usually  so  stated  in  books ;  but  though 
the  mother  is  very  attentive,  as  we  shall  presently 
see,  to  every  species  of  cleanliness,  Providence  has 
ordered  that  so  important  a  circumstance  should  not 
be  left  wholly  to  her  care.  Those  who  have  not  an 
opportunity  of  verifying  our  remark  in  the  case  of 
nestling  birds,  may  readily  observe  the  same  thing  in 
domestic  animals.  Cats,  for  example,  are  very  as- 
siduous in  cleaning  the  fur  of  their  kittens,  for  which 
purpose  their  rough  tongue  is  admirably  adapted : 
but  a  kitten,  like  the  nestling  bird,  when  only  a  few 
days  old,  may  be  seen  dressing  itself  assiduously ; 
and  as  soon  as  it  can  run  about,  it  will  even  en- 
deavour to  clean  its  dam.  This  circumstance  we 
never  observed  among  young  birds  and  their  moth- 
ers; though  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  among 
rabbits,  horses,  and  other  domestic  quadrupeds. 
Mutual  assistance  in  cleaning  is  even  given  by  in- 
dividuals not  of  the  same  family,  as  may  be  seen  in 
horses  dressing  each  other's  necks ;  and  Wilson  re- 
lates an  instance  of  the  same  thing  in  the  case  of 
two  birds,  not  even  of  the  same  species,  in  his  in- 
imitable account  of  the  blue  jay  (Garrulus  cristatus, 
BRISSON).  An  individual  of  this  species,  which  had 
been  caught  in  the  woods,  was  put  into  the  same 
cage  with  an  orchard  oriole  (Icterus  spurius,  BONA- 
PARTE), who  at  first  received  the  new  comer  with 
no  little  jealousy ;  but  this  all  vanished  in  a  few 
hours,  and  they  lived  together  in  good-humour. 
"  When  the  jay  goes  to  drink,"  the  narrative  pro- 
ceeds, "  his  messmate  very  impudently  jumps  into 
the  water  to  wash  herself,  throwing  it  in  showers 
over  her  companion,  who  bears  it  all  patiently  \  ven- 
turing now  and  then  to  take  a  sip  between  every 


CLEANLINESS.  109 

splash,  without  betraying  the  smallest  irritation. 
On  the  contrary,  he  seems  to  take  pleasure  in  his 
little  fellow-prisoner,  allowing  her  to  peck  (which 
she  does  very  gently)  about  his  whiskers,  and  to 
clean  from  his  claws  the  minute  fragments  of  chest- 
nuts which  happen  to  adhere  to  them."* 

Ducks  and  other  water-birds  are,  if  possible,  more 
assiduous  in  trimming  their  feathers  than  landbirds, 
one  reason  for  which  appears  to  be,  that  their  plume- 
lets being  of  very  close  texture,  any  slight  derange- 
ment in  them  is  readily  felt  from  the  air  getting  ac- 
cess to  the  skin  through  the  breach  thus  occasioned. 
The  closeness  of  feather  in  aquatic  birds  serves  to 
present  an  impenetrable  texture  to  the  water  in 
which  they  swim,  as  well  as  a  smooth  surface  which 
diminishes  the  effect  of  friction  in  their  progress. 

The  greater  number  of  authors,  in  addition  to  this, 
tell  us  that  birds,  and  more  particularly  aquatic  birds, 
dress  their  feathers  with  a  peculiar  oil  furnished  for 
this  purpose  by  a  gland  on  the  rump ;  but  this  is  an 
opinion  which  we  shall  presently  see  admits  of  con- 
siderable doubt.  It  may  be  well,  however,  to  state 
the  particulars  of  the  common  notion.  "  Upon  the 
rump,"  says  Willoughby,  "  grow  two  glandules,  de- 
signed for  the  preparation  and  secretion  of  a  certain 
unctuous  humour,  and  furnished  with  a  hole  or  ex- 
cretory vessel.  About  this  hole  grows  a  tuft  of  small 
feathers  or  hairs,  somewhat  like  to  a  painter's  pencil. 
When,  therefore,  the  parts  of  the  feathers  are  shat- 
tered, ruffled,  or  any  way  discomposed,  the  bird,  turn- 
ing her  head  backward  to  her  rump,  with  her  bill 
catches  hold  of  the  fore-named  tuft,  and  pressing  the 
glandules,  forces  out  the  oily  pap,  and  therewithal 
anointing  the  disjoined  parts  of  the  feathers,  and 
drawing  them  out  with  her  bill,  recomposes  and  pla- 
ces them  in  due  order,  and  causes  them  to  stick 
faster  together,  "f 

The  recent  authors  who  adopt  this  opinion  would 

*  Wilson's  Amer.  Omith.,  i.,  15.     f  Ray's  Willoughbj,  p.  3, 

K 


110  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

appear,  from  their  taking  no  notice  of  them,  to  be 
unacquainted  with  the  observations  of  M.  Reaumur, 
which  we  shall  abstract.  The  glands  on  the  rump, 
he  remarks,  secrete  an  unctuous  fluid,  discharged  in 
some  birds  by  one,  and  in  others  by  two  excretory 
canals.  Poultry  have  but  one  of  these  canals,  which 
consists  of  a  conical  fleshy  pipe  of  a  series  of  rings, 
placed  almost  perpendicular  to  the  rump ;  and  when 
this  gland  is  pressed  by  the  fingers,  the  fluid,  thick- 
ish  in  consistence,  is  seen  to  exude.  But  in  a  pecu- 
liar species  of  barndoor  fowls,  without  tails  (Gallus 
ecaudatusj  TEMMINCK),  originally  it  would  appear 
from  Ceylon,  the  tail,  the  rump,  and  the  gland  are 
all  wanting,  the  part  where  these  grow  in  other  spe- 
cies being  depressed  and  smooth. 

Were  an  attempt  made  to  assign  a  reason  why 
these  Ceylonese  fowls  have  no  unctuous  gland  on 
the  rump,  a  mistake  might  as  readily  be  committed 
as  has,  it  would  appear,  been  done  in  the  theory 
framed  to  account  for  the  use  of  the  gland  in  birds 
which  possess  it.  All  the  works  of  nature  being 
lavishly  filled  with  wonders,  fitted  to  raise  most  just 
admiration  of  the  Creator,  those  who,  with  very 
laudable  intentions,  undertake  to  exhibit  these  won- 
ders, may  be  considered  as  in  some  degree  blameable 
when  they  introduce  into  their  enumeration  circum- 
stances that  are  vague  and  uncertain.  Among  such 
doubtful  things  appears  to  be  the  opinion  that  the 
feathers  of  birds  require  to  be  done  over  with  a  kind 
of  oil  or  grease,  in  order  to  cause  the  rain  or  other 
water  to  run  off  without  penetrating  them,  the  unc- 
tion, when  wanted,  being  supplied  by  the  gland  on 
the  rump.  If  those  who  adopt  this  opinion,  plausi- 
ble as  it  seems  to  be,  had  taken  the  trouble  to  ascer- 
tain the  small  quantity  of  fluid  actually  secreted  by 
this  gland  from  day  to  day,  and  compared  it  with 
the  proportional  extent  of  surface  constituted  by  the 
assemblage  of  the  numberless  feathers  of  any  par- 
ticular bird,  not  to  speak  of  the  instrument  with 


CLEANLINESS.  Ill 

which  the  dressing  is  said  to  be  effected,  they  would 
have  seen  at  once  that  the  theory  is  untenable,  as  the 
quantity  secreted  in  one  day  would  scarcely  suffice  to 
anoint  a  single  feather,  much  less  the  whole.  We 
have  just  squeezed  out  all  the  oil  contained  in  the 
double  rump-gland  of  a  common  wren,  and  found  it 
impossible  to  make  it  go  over  one  of  the  tail  feath- 
ers. "  One  fact,"  says  M.  Le  Vaillant.  "  is  frequent- 
ly sufficient  to  demolish  a  theory  ;"  and  the  fact  that 
the  feathers  of  the  rumpless  fowls  which  have  no 
gland  are  as  smooth  and  proof  against  rain  as  those 
which  possess  the  gland,  furnishes  a  striking  illus- 
tration of  the  remark. 

The  fact,  however,  is  unquestionable,  that  birds 
are  sometimes  seen  pecking  about  the  gland  in  ques- 
tion. But  the  observing  of  a  bird  thus  engaged,  so 
far  from  authorizing  the  received  conclusion,  might 
have  shown  that  the  point  of  the  bill  could  never 
squeeze  out  enough  of  fluid  for  the  purpose  alleged. 
The  only  legitimate  inference  would  have  been  that 
some  slight  pain  or  irritation  had  caused  the  bird  to 
peck  the  gland;  and  every  schoolboy  knows  that 
the  canal  of  this  gland  often  becomes  obstructed  in 
his  pet  birds,  and  occasions  a  troublesome  and  some- 
times fatal  engorgement. 

The  remark  of  Blumenbach  that  the  gland  is  lar- 
gest in  aquatic  birds,  contains  a  generalization  not 
warranted  by  facts  ;  for  grebes,  divers,  and  such  as 
want  tails,  have  the  gland  much  smaller,  though  their 
feathers  are  as  smooth  and  as  impenetrable  by  wa- 
ter as  those  of  the  terns  and  the  gulls  which  have 
considerable  tails. 

It  is  only  requisite,  indeed,  for  any  one  to  watch  a 
bird  preening  its  feathers,  to  be  convinced  of  the  fal- 
lacy of  the  theory.  We  have  attended  for  hours  to  va- 
rious species  of  birds  when  thus  engaged ;  and  so  far 
from  constantly  returning  to  the  rump-gland,  which 
by  the  hypothesis  would  be  indispensable  for  dress- 
ing every  successive  feather,  it  is  rarely  visited  at 


112  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

all  during  the  operation ;  and  when  it  is,  the  sole  ob- 
ject seems  to  be  to  trim  the  pencil  of  feathers  which 
surrounds  the  gland.  Had  we  any  doubts  upon  the 
subject,  the  simple  experiment  of  covering  the  gland 
in  one  hen  or  duck  so  as  to  prevent  the  bird  having 
access  to  it,  and  leaving  it  uncovered  in  another,  for 
a  few  days  or  weeks,  would,  by  the  state  of  the 
feathers  in  each,  set  the  question  at  rest.  Independ- 
ently of  such  an  experiment,  common  to  all  birds, 
the  circumstance  of  the  feathers  on  the  head  being 
equally  trim,  smooth,  and  glossy  with  those  on  the 
body,  though  they  cannot  be  oiled,  as  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  reach  the  head  with  the  bill — the  only  instru- 
ment by  which  the  oil  could  be  applied — is  of  itself 
fatal  to  the  theory. 

Should  we  be  asked  what  we  consider  to  be  the 
use  of  the  gland,  we  must  at  once  say  that  we  do 
not  know ;  but  our  ignorance  of  its  real  use  furnish- 
es no  support  to  the  conjectural  theory  which  the 
preceding  facts  prove  to  be  erroneous,  no  less  than 
some  others  connected  with  cleanliness  which  we 
shall  now  mention. 

The  Mohammedan  Arabs  of  the  desert,  when  they 
cannot  procure  water  to  perform  the  stated  ablutions 
enjoined  by  the  Koran,  have  recourse  to  dry  sand, 
with  which  they  rub  their  bodies  as  a  substitute; 
and  it  is  no  doubt  as  a  substitute  for  washing  that 
some  birds,  thence  called  pulverizers  (Pulvinatores), 
are  fond  of  squatting  in  dust  and  hustling  it  into  their 
feathers.  A  familiar  instance  of  pulverizing  may  be 
observed  in  the  barndoor  fowl,  even  the  unfledged 
chickens  of  which  we  have  observed  muddling  in  the 
dust  by  instinct,  it  should  seem,  as  they  were  too 
young  to  have  learned  the  practice  from  experience 
or  by  imitation.  Now,  had  the  feathers  of  these 
pulverizers  been  previously  smeared  with  any  unc- 
tuous matter,  such  as  that  in  the  rump-gland,  the 
dust  would  have  adhered,  and  thus  tended  to  soil 
rather  than  to  cleanse  them. 


CLEANLINESS.  113 

A  great  number  of  birds  are  fond  of  washing  their 
plumes,  by  throwing  water  over  them  with  their 
beaks,  and  even  dipping  their  bodies  in  ponds  or 
streams.  Mr.  Knapp  mentions  the  linnet  (Linaria 
Linota)  as  the  cleanliest  of  birds  in  this  respect, 
since  it  delights  to  dabble  in  the  water  and  dress  its 
plumage  in  every  rill  that  runs  by ;  but  we  do  not 
think  the  linnet  washes  more  frequently  than  any 
of  the  other  smaller  birds  (Sylvicola,  VIEILLOT).  The 
linnet,  the  chaffinch,  and  all  the  seed-eating  birds, 
indeed,  we  have  remarked  to  wash  less  frequently 
than  the  slender-billed  birds  (Sylviada,  VIGORS),  to 
which  washing  seems  almost  as  necessary  as  food 
and  air. 

The  largest  birds  of  prey  are  no  less  fond  of  wash- 
ing, though  they  care  so  little  for  water  to  drink  that 
it  has  been  erroneously  asserted  they  never  drink. 
"  What  I  observed,"  says  the  Abbe  Spallanzani,  "is 
that  eagles,  when  left  even  for  several  months  with- 
out water,  did  not  seem  to  suffer  the  smallest  incon- 
venience from  the  want  of  it ;  but  when  they  were 
supplied  with  water,  they  not  only  got  into  the  ves- 
sel and  sprinkled  their  feathers  like  other  birds,  but 
repeatedly  dipped  their  beak,  then  raised  their  head 
in  the  manner  of  common  fowls,  and  swallowed 
what  they  had  taken  up ;  hence  it  is  evident  that 
they  drink.  For  the  eagle  it  was  necessary  to  set 
the  water  in  a  large  vessel,  otherwise,  by  its  attempts 
to  drink,  the  vessel  was  sure  to  be  overturned." 

Did  these  birds  require  to  oil  their  feathers  after 
every  washing,  an  immensely  larger  gland  than  any 
of  them  are  furnished  with  would  be  indispensable 
to  supply  the  requisite  quantity ;  while  it  would  pre- 
vent their  feathers  from  being  wetted  at  all,  though 
this  seems  to  be  their  aim  in  the  operation,  for  the 
purpose,  among  other  things,  of  getting  rid  of  para- 
site insects.  The  head,  however,  which  they  cannot 
reach  with  their  bill,  and  which  cannot,  therefore,  be 
daubed  with  the  oil,  is  the  most  liable  to  be  thus  in- 


114 


HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 


fected ;  and  accordingly  we  often  see  cagebirds  con- 
tent themselves  with  wetting  their  heads,  without 
touching  the  rest  of  the  body.  They  may  also  be 
frequently  seen  combing  or  scratching  their  heads 
with  their  claws,  no  doubt  with  a  similar  design. 
This  circumstance  has  given  rise  to  a  curious  dis- 
cussion concerning  the  intended  use  of  the  claws  of 
some  species,  among  which  are  the  nightjar  and 
the  herons,  that  are  furnished  with  small  teeth  like 
a  saw  or  comb. 


Night  Heron 


CLEANLINESS.  115 

Wilson  remarked  that  in  specimens  which  he  pro- 
cured of  the  night-heron  (Nycticorax  Europceus,  STE- 
PHENS), the  middle  claws,  serrated  on  the  inside  with 
from  thirty-five  to  forty  teeth,  contained  "  particles 
of  the  down  of  the  bird,  showing  evidently  from 
this  circumstance  that  they  act  the  part  of  a  comb, 
to  rid  the  bird  of  vermin  in  those  parts  which  it  can- 
not reach  with  its  bill."*  With  respect  to  the  night- 
jars, Wilson  gives  a  similar  statement.  His  night- 
hawk,  for  instance,  he  says,  has  its  "  middle  claw 
pectinated  on  its  inner  edge,  to  serve  as  a  comb  to 
clear  the  bird  of  vermin. "f  Again  he  says,  "the 
inner  edge  of  the  middle  claw  of  the  whip-poor-will, 
another  of  the  nightjars,  is  pectinated;  and  from 
the  circumstance  of  its  being  frequently  found  with 
small  portions  of  down  adhering  to  the  teeth,  is 
probably  employed  as  a  comb  to  rid  the  plumage  of 
its  head  of  vermin,  this  being  the  principal  and  al- 
most only  part  so  infested  in  all  birds. "J  He  farther 
proves  this  in  the  case  of  the  Carolina  nightjar,  or 
chuck-will's-widow,  by  actual  observation  of  the 
fact ;  speaking  of  which  species  he  says,  "  reposing 
much  during  the  heats  of  the  day,  they  are  much 
infested  with  vermin,  particularly  about  the  head, 
and  are  provided  with  a  comb  on  the  inner  edge  of 
the  middle  claw,  with  which  they  are  often  employed 
in  ridding  themselves  of  these  pests  when  in  a  state 
of  captivity.  "§ 

The  main  instrument,  however,  by  which  birds 
trim  their  feathers  is  the  bill ;  and  if  any  fluid  is  used, 
it  must  be  produced  from  the  salivary,  and  not  from 
the  rump-glands.  By  attending  minutely  to  the  op- 
eration, indeed,  the  tongue  may  be  perceived  to  be 
as  actively  employed  as  the  other  parts  of  the  bill, 
and  is  certainly  the  organ  which  apprizes  the  bird  of 
any  rumpling  or  clotting  of  the  plumelets ;  and  when 
such  derangement  is  perceived,  a  pause  is  instantly 

*  Wilson,  Amer.  Ornith.,  vii.,  110,  2d  ed. 

t  Ibid.,  v.,  70.       J  Ibid.,  v.,  77.       $  Ibid.,  vi.,  97. 


116  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

made  till  the  part  is  properly  adjusted.  We  have 
observed  a  young  greenbird  (Fringilla  Moris)  preen- 
ing its  wings  as  they  became  dry  after  washing ;  and 
we  could  distinctly  perceive  the  tongue  employed 
both  for  ascertaining  the  parts  that  were  rumpled, 
and  for  licking  them  straight  when  merely  passing 
them  through  the  bill  was  found  to  be  insufficient. 

That  this,  though  it  may  be  considered  a  novel 
statement,  is  notwithstanding  a  correct  one,  may  be 
corroborated  analogically  by  referring  to  the  similar 
manner  in  which  other  animals  clean  themselves. 
Quadrupeds  have  no  glands  similar  to  those  in  birds 
erroneously  conjectured  to  furnish  a  dressing  oil ; 
yet  the  greater  number  of  quadrupeds  have  their  fur 
smooth  and  even  glossy,  simply  from  licking  it,  as 
our  young  greenbird  was  seen  to  do  its  feathers. 
The  cattle  in  our  pastures  may  in  this  way  be  seen 
passing  their  moist  tongues  over  their  hair ;  and  the 
elephant  in  a  menagerie  may  be  observed  using  the 
moist  extremity  of  his  proboscis  to  clean  his  rough 
hairless  skin. 


CHAPTER  X. 

BIRDS,  SOLITARY  AND  GREGARIOUS,  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  FOOD. 

AT  the  moment  of  writing  this,  we  can  see  from 
our  study-window  seven  out  of  a  flock  of  a  score 
feeding  so  closely  crowded  as  to  have  their  fleeces 
in  actual  contact.  And  yet  the  field  is  by  no  means 
small,  and  other  parts  of  it  have  grass  equal  in  good- 
ness to  the  corner  where  these  seven  sheep  are  nib- 
bling it  to  the  very  root,  while  the  rest  of  their  com- 
panions are  only  at  a  few  feet  distance,  in  the  same 
quarter  of  the  field. 


SOLITARY    AND    GREGARIOUS.  117 

In  order  to  arrive  at  the  cause  of  this  sociality, 
which  seems  not  only  to  be  without  any  reason- 
able motive  arising  from  mutual  advantage,  but  to 
be  rather  disadvantageous  from  the  pasture  being 
exhausted  by  the  crowd  of  feeders,  we  must  con- 
sider these  sheep  as  domesticated,  and,  of  course, 
in  different  circumstances  from  the  species  in  their 
original  state  of  wildness  and  freedom,  in  which 
such  sociality  may  serve  some  important  purpose. 
The  sheep  of  mountainous  countries,  where  they 
are  in  a  state  of  comparative  wildness,  though  un- 
confined  by  fences,  like  those  in  the  meadow  just 
alluded  to,  are  observed  to  keep  together  in  bands, 
and  to  pass  from  one  mountain  platform  to  another 
in  regular  ranks,  one  deep,  always  headed  by  a 
leader.  The  duty  of  this  leader  is  to  give  warning 
of  the  approach  of  danger  to  his  troop,  both  when 
on  a  march  of  removal  to  a  different  pasture  and 
also  while  they  are  feeding.  This  fact,  which  has 
often  been  recorded,  we  have  had  more  than  once 
an  opportunity  of  witnessing  in  Wales.  On  ascend- 
ing Snowdon,  for  example,  our  attention  was  at- 
tracted by  the  deep  harsh  krroup  of  a  raven  sailing 
about  on  the  air,  looking  out,  no  doubt,  for  some 
luckless  sheep  enfeebled  by  accident  or  disease  upon 
which  he  might  pounce.  Immediately  from  the 
shoulder  of  the  mountain  above  us  the  note  of  the 
raven  was  answered  by  the  alarm-call  of  the  leader 
of  a  small  flock  of  sheep  who  were  feeding  on  the 
scanty  herbage  of  this  lofty  region ;  and,  at  the  sig- 
nal, they  quickly  drew  closer  together,  and,  forming 
a  "  serried  phalanx,"  eyed  their  enemy  with  a  bold- 
er bearing  than  we  could  have  deemed  possible  in 
animals  proverbial  for  timidity.  The  raven  was  not 
long  in  discovering  that  he  had  little  chance  of  sin- 
gling a  victim  from  so  watchful  and  wary  a  baqd, 
and  flew  off  towards  the  neighbouring  cliffs,  where 
he  might  chance  to  light  upon  the  carcass  of  one  left 
undevoured  by  some  fox  scared  from  his  prey,  or 


118  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

accidentally  precipitated,  as  we  have  seen  happen, 
from  the  rocks  above.  On  the  departure  of  their 
enemy,  the  sheep  began  to  feed  again,  but  warily  at 
first,  raising  their  heads  at  intervals  to  assure  them- 
selves that  be  was  really  gone ;  while,  to  render  as- 
surance doubly  sure,  their  leader  again  took  his  sta- 
tion as  sentinel  for  the  common  weal. 

Now  we  are  disposed  to  conclude,  that  these  two 
cases  of  the  sheep  and  the  raven  may,  so  far  as  food 
is  concerned,  be  taken  as  the  general  conditions  of 
the  solitary  and  gregarious  habits  of  birds.  One 
whose  food  is  confined  to  living  prey  will  prowl 
alone,  because  along  with  associates  he  might  fare 
scantily ;  while  those  who  feed  on  seeds  and  other 
vegetable  substances,  easily  obtained  in  abundance, 
congregate  that  they  may  feed  more  safely,  by  ap- 
pointing, as  the  mountain  sheep  do,  a  sentinel  to 
warn  them  of  danger.  The  raven,  indeed,  can  hard- 
ly be  looked  upon  as  subsisting  wholly  on  living 
prey.  It  is  not  furnished  by  nature  with  suffi- 
ciently formidable  weapons  for  this  purpose  ;  and 
almost  uniformly,  when  carrion  cannot  be  obtain- 
ed, it  attacks  lambs,  sickly  sheep,  or  such  as  have 
fallen  into  a  ditch  or  bog,  perching  on  the  head 
and  pecking  out  the  eyes.  In  temperate  climates, 
birds  that  prey  on  carrion  are  less  necessary  as 
scavengers  than  in  tropical  countries,  where  flocks 
of  vultures  collect  together  from  distances  that 
have  astonished  all  observers  by  whom  the  circum- 
stance is  recorded.  The  gregariousness  of  these 
birds,  however,  may  be  plausibly  referred  to  the 
wise  care  of  Providence  to  have  offensive  car- 
casses speedily  removed ;  and  it  is  manifestly 
with  this  design  that  such  birds  are  endowed  with 
extremely  acute  senses,  either  of  vision  or  of  smell, 
probably  both,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  discover  car- 
rion afar  off. 

This  is  well  exemplified  in  two  species,  which 
have  been  frequently  confounded,  the  Turkey  buz- 


SOLITARY    AND    GREGARIOUS.  119 


Turkey  Buzzard  and  Black  Vulture. 

zard  (Catharista  aura,  VIEILLOT)  and  the  black  vulture 
(C.  Urubu,  VIEILLOT),  both  of  which  are  looked  upon 
as  so  useful  that  there  is  a  considerable  penalty  for 
killing  them.  "  The  great  number  of  these  birds" 


120  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

(C.  Urulu),  says  Ulloa,  "  found  in  hot  climates,  is  an 
excellent  provision  of  nature ;  as  otherwise  the 
putrefaction  caused  by  the  constant  and  excessive 
heat  would  render  the  air  insupportable  to  human 
life.  These  birds  are  familiar  in  Carthagena ;  the 
tops  of  the  houses  are  covered  with  them  :  it  is 
they  who  cleanse  the  city  of  all  its  animal  impuri- 
ties. There  are  few  animals  killed  whereof  they 
do  not  obtain  the  offals;  and  when  this  food  is 
wanting,  they  have  recourse  to  other  garbage."  The 
following  account  of  the  same  bird  is  in  Wilson's 
best  manner. 

"  A  horse  had  dropped  down  in  the  street  in  con- 
vulsions, and,  dying,  it  was  dragged  out  to  Hamp- 
stead  and  skinned.  The  ground  for  a  hundred  yards 
around  it  was  black  with  carrion  crows ;  many  sat 
on  the  tops  of  sheds,  fences,  and  houses  within  sight ; 
sixty  or  eighty  on  the  opposite  side  of  a  small  run. 
I  counted  at  one  time  two  hundred  and  thirty-seven, 
but  I  believe  there  were  more,  besides  several  in 
the  air  over  my  head,  and  at  a  distance.  I  ventured 
cautiously  within  thirty  yards  of  the  carcass,  where 
three  or  four  dogs  and  twenty  or  thirty  vultures 
were  busily  tearing  and  devouring.  Seeing  them 
take  no  notice,  I  ventured  nearer,  till  I  was  within 
ten  yards,  and  sat  down  on  the  bank.  Still  they 
paid  little  attention  to  me.  The  dogs,  being  some- 
times accidentally  flapped  with  the  wings  of  the  vul- 
tures, would  growl  and  snap  at  them,  which  would 
occasion  them  to  spring  up  for  a  moment,  but  they 
immediately  gathered  in  again.  I  remarked  the 
vultures  frequently  attack  each  other,  fighting  with 
their  claws  or  heels,  striking  like  a  cock,  with  open 
wings,  and  fixing  their  claws  in  each  other's  head. 
The  females,  and,  I  believe,  the  males  like  wise,  made 
a  hissing  sound,  with  open  mouth,  exactly  resem- 
bling that  produced  by  thrusting  a  redhot  poker 
into  water ;  and  frequently  a  snuffling,  like  a  dog 
clearing  his  nostrils,  as  1  suppose  they  were  theirs. 


SOLITARY    AND    GREGARIOUS.  121 

On  observing  that  they  did  not  heed  me,  I  stole  so 
close  that  my  feet  were  within  one  yard  of  the 
horse's  legs,  and  again  sat  down.  They  all  slid 
aloof  a  few  feet ;  but  seeing  me  quiet,  they  soon  re- 
turned as  before.  As  they  were  often  disturbed  by 
the  dogs,  I  ordered  the  latter  home ;  my  voice  gave 
no  alarm  to  the  vultures.  As  soon  as  the  dogs  de- 
parted, the  vultures  crowded  in  such  numbers,  that 
I  counted  at  one  time  thirty-seven  on  and  around 
the  carcass,  with  several  within  ;  so  that  scarcely  an 
inch  of  it  was  visible.  Sometimes  one  would  come 
out  with  a  large  piece  of  the  entrails,  which,  in  a 
moment,  was  surrounded  by  several  others,  who  tore 
it  in  fragments,  and  it  soon  disappeared.  They 
kept  up  the  hissing  occasionally.  Some  of  them, 
having  their  whole  legs  and  heads  covered  with 
blood,  presented  a  most  savage  aspect.  Still,  as  the 
dogs  advanced,  I  would  order  them  away,  which 
seemed  to  gratify  the  vultures ;  and  one  would  pur- 
sue another  to  within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  spot 
where  I  was  sitting.  Sometimes  I  observed  them 
stretching  their  necks  along  the  ground,  as  if  to 
press  the  food  downward."* 

But  it  may  be  remarked,  that  in  all  the  accounts 
given  of  these  gregarious  vultures,  nothing  is  said 
of  their  appointing  a  sentinel  like  the  mountain- 
sheep,  or  like  several  species  of  birds  to  which  we 
shall  presently  attend.  For  this,  however,  there  is 
the  obvious  reason,  that  the  vultures  have  no  for- 
midable enemies,  being  protected  by  man  to  serve 
his  convenience,  besides  that,  like  the  mole,  they 
seem  to  be  too  disgusting  to  be  preyed  upon  by 
any  animal. 

Other  gregarious  birds,  however,  may  be  observed 
always  to  have  a  sentinel  stationed  near  them  while 
feeding,  whose  office  it  is  to  give  timely  alarm  of 
threatening  danger  or  indications  of  its  approach. 

*Amer.  Ornith.,  ix.,  107. 
L 


122  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

When  a  flock  of  sparrows,  accordingly,  alight  in  the 
corner  of  a  wheatfield,  and,  as  Bloomfield  says, 

"  Drop  one  by  one  upon  the  bending  corn,"* 

we  may  always  be  certain  of  discovering  one,  or 
perhaps  several,  perched  on  some  commanding  sta- 
tion in  the  adjacent  hedgerow,  prying  into  the 
probable  design  of  every  movement  among  men  or 
animals  which  lie  within  ken  of  the  watch-tower. 
The  instant  the  sentinel  perceives  anything  which 
he  deems  worthy  of  notice,  he  gives  his  well-known 
signal,  at  which  the  whole  flock  hurry  off  from  their 
banquet  with  the  utmost  celerity  and  trepidation. 
Their  fears  are,  for  the  most  part,  only  momentary ; 
for,  as  soon  as  they  ascertain  that  there  is  no  im- 
mediate danger,  they  hasten  back  to  finish  their 
meal. 

From  all  we  have  been  able  to  observe,  there 
does  not  seem  to  be  anything  like  an  election  or 
appointment  of  such  sentinels.  The  fact  appears 
rather  to  be,  that,  probably  from  being  less  impelled 
by  the  calls  of  hunger,  the  bird -of  the  flock  who 
chances  to  be  the  last  in  venturing  to  alight,  feels 
then  reluctant  to  join  his  companions,  in  conse- 
quence of  an  instinctive  foresight  that  they  might  all 
be  thence  exposed  to  danger.  We  only  offer  this, 
however,  as  a  plausible  conjecture,  which  appears 
more  applicable,  to  the  case  of  sparrows  than  to 
that  of  some  other  gregarious  birds.  Were  we 
disposed,  indeed,  to  indulge  in  the  fancies  sometimes 
found  in  books  of  natural  history,  we  might  give 
the  sparrows  credit  not  only  for  appointing  senti- 
nels, but  for  trying  them  for  neglect  of  duty  by  a 
regular  court-martial. 

Sparrow-courts,  or  assemblies  of  sparrows  for 
some  common  object  regarding  one  of  their  com- 
munity, are  of  frequent  occurrence ;  and.  in  truth, 

*  Farmer's  Boy. 


SOLITARY    AND    GREGARIOUS.  123 

they  can  scarcely  escape  the  observation  of  any 
one  who  attends  to  the  habits  of  animals.  The 
birds  usually  select  a  spot  somewhat  remote  from 
their  usual  haunts,  such  as  the  centre  of  a  copse  or 
the  edge  of  a  wood,  where  they  may  be  seen  crowd- 
ing closely  around  one  of  this  number,  and  scolding 
him  in  all  the  terms  of  their  vocabulary.  Whether 
they  proceed  from  verbal  reproof,  however,  to  cor- 
poreal chastisement,  we  have  never  ascertained ;  for 
they  are  so  jealous,  on  such  occasions,  of  intruders, 
that  they  immediately  stay  process  and  break  up 
their  court,  should  a  prying  naturalist  venture  with- 
in the  precincts.  Descriptions  precisely  analogous 
have  been  given  by  different  authors  of  assemblies 
of  rooks,  or  crow-courts^  as  they  are  called.  In  the 
latter,  however,  if  we  may  believe  what  is  reported, 
there  is  a  regular  trial  of  a'  delinquent,  who,  upon 
being  found  guilty,  receives  a  severe  drubbing  from 
the  whole  court,  and  is  even  sometimes  killed  out- 
right.* 

Pliny  reports  something  similar  to  this  as  occur- 
ring among  storks.  "  There  is  a  place,"  he  says, 
"  in  the  open  plains  and  champaign  country  of  Asia 
Pithonas-Come,  where  (by  report)  they  assemble 
altogether,  and,  being  met,  keep  up  a  jangling  one 
with  another ;  but,  in  the  end,  look  which  of  them 
lagged  behind  and  came  tardy ;  him  they  tear  in 
pieces,  and  then  depart."! 

It  is  not  improbable,  we  think,  that  this  legend 
(for  it  can- be  nothing  more)  of  the  crow-courts  has 
originated  in  the  quarrels  which  take  place  when 
rooks  are  building  their  nests,  in  consequence  of 
their  propensity  to  pilfer.  In  such  cases,  as  Gold- 
smith records  from  his  own  observation,  "thefts 
never  go  unpunished ;  and  probably,  upon  complaint 
being  made,  there  is  a  general  punishment  inflicted : 

*  Landt,  description  of  the  Feroe  Isles, 
t  Holland's  Plmie,  x.,  23. 


124  HABITS   OF    BIRDS. 

I  have  seen,"  he  adds,  "  eight  or  ten  rooks  come, 
upon  such  occasions,  and  setting  upon  the  new  nest 
of  the  young  couple,  all  at  once  tear  it  in  pieces  in 
a  moment.  Such  is  the  severity  with  which  even 
native  rooks  are  treated;  but  if  a  foreign  rook 
should  attempt  to  make  himself  a  denizen  of  their 
society,  he  would  meet  with  no  favour :  the  whole 
grove  would  at  once  be  up  in  arms  against  him  and 
expel  him  without  mercy."* 

Rooks,  if  we  may  judge  from  our  own  observa- 
tion, are  more  particular  even  than  sparrows  in  the 
circumstance  of  having  sentinels  while  they  are 
feeding  in  parties  after  the  breeding  season;  for 
while  providing  for  their  young  family,  they,  in 
general,  cater  apart.  These  rook  sentinels  are  so 
vigilant,  that  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  get  within 
shot  of  a  foraging  party ;  and  hence  it  is  popularly 
believed  that  rooks  can  smell  gunpowder.  We 
have  often  proved,  however,  that  it  is  just  as  diffi- 
cult to  approach  them  without  alarming  the  senti- 
nels, when  only  carrying  an  umbrella,  as  when 
armed  with  a  fowling-piece ;  but  that  they  seem  to 
have  some  knowledge  of  firearms  appears  from 
their  being  alarmed  if  a  walking-stick  is  levelled  at 
them,  though  no  noise  is  made ;  a  knowledge  most 
probably  acquired  by  the  reiterated  experience  of 
having  their  nest-trees  fired  at  when  the  young  are 
fit  to  be  made  into  pies.  It  is  stated  in  some  ac- 
counts of  newly-discovered  countries,  that  the  birds 
were  not  at  first  frightened  by  the  presentment  of  a 
fowling-piece,  but  soon  became  so  after  some  ex- 
perience of  its  effects.  We  also  think  it  not  un- 
likely that  the  crows  acquire  part  of  xthe  skilful  vi- 
gilance which  they  exhibit  as  sentinels  during  the 
building  of  their  nests,  when  one  of  a  pair  usually 
watches  the  nest  while  the  other  makes  excursions 
to  procure  materials. 

*  Animated  Nature,  iii.,  168. 


SOLITARY    AND    GREGARIOUS. 


125 


The  sentinels  of  gregarious  birds  were  observed 
by  the  ancients,  and  legends  told  of  them  no  less 
exaggerated  than  those  of  our  modern  crow-courts. 
"  The  cranes,"  says  Aristotle,  as  we  may  translate 


Crane. 

the  passage,  "  have  a  leader,  as  well  as  sentinels 
placed  in  their  rear  rank,  so  that  their  alarm-call  may 
be  heard."*  Pliny  gives  a  still  more  minute  detail  of 
their  proceedings.  Speaking  of  their  migration,  he 

*  Hist.  Anim.,  ix.,  10. 
L  2 


126  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

says :  "  They  put  not  themselves  in  their  journey, 
nor  set  forward  without  a  council  called  before,  and 
a  general  consent.  They  flie  aloft,  because  they 
would  have  a  better  prospect  to  see  before  them  j 
and  for  this  purpose  a  captain  they  chuse  to  guide 
them,  whom  the  rest  follow.  In  the  rereward  behind 
there  be  certain  of  them  set  and  disposed  to  give 
signal  by  their  manner  of  cry,  for  to  range  orderly 
in  ranks,  and  keep  close  together  in  array  :  and  this 
they  do  by  turns,  each  one  in  his  course.  They 
maintain  a  set  watch  all  the  night  long,  and  have 
their  sentinels.  These  stand  on  one  foot,  and 
hold  a  little  stone  within  the  other,  which,  by  falling 
from  it  if  they  should  chance  to  sleep,  might  awa- 
ken them,  and  reprove  them  for  their  negligence. 
Whiles  these  watch,  all  the  rest  sleep,  couching 
their  heads  under  their  wings ;  and  one  while  they 
rest  on  the  one  foot  and  otherwhiles  they  shift  to 
the  other.  The  captain  beareth  up  his  head  aloft 
into  the  air,  and  giveth  signal  to  the  rest  what  is  to 
be  done." 

Authors  also  tell  us  that  the  quails  have  a  king  to 
conduct  their  migrations  ;  and  it  is  farther  pretend- 
ed that  they  are  shrewd  enough  not  to  select  for  a 
monarch  one  from  their  own  body,  but  make  choice 
of  a  landrail  (Ortygometra  Crex) ;  for,  upon  coming 
to  their  place  of  destination,  the  first  of  the  band 
usually  falls  a  victim  to  some  bird  of  prey  that  is 
waiting  their  arrival,  and,  foreseeing  this,  the  quails 
contrive  to  provide  a  victim  from  another  species. 
Such  legends,  as  Buffon  well  remarks,  by  ascribing 
incredible  sagacity  and  design  to  birds,  give  us  good 
room  to  doubt  whether  the  authors  themselves  pos- 
sess any  great  share.  As  the  landrail,  however, 
migrates  about  the  same  period  with  the  quails, 
this  is  not  quite  so  extravagant  a  notion  as  that  re- 
corded by  Aristotle,  that  the  quails  are  led  by  an 
owl  as  their  king. 

M.  Vaillant  remarks,  that  the  idea  of  these  king- 


SOLITARY    AND   GREGARIOUS. 


127 


birds  seem  to  have  originated  from  the  casual  ob- 
servation of  a  strange  species  among  a  flock  of 
gregarious  birds.  He  once  observed  a  few  cross- 
bills (Loxia  curvirostra)  in  the  king's  garden  at  Paris, 
intermingling  with  other  gregarious  birds.  These, 
being  uncommon  birds,  were  very  likely  to  attract 
popular  attention,  and  give  rise  to  the  fancy  of  their 
being  royal  birds.  He  once  also  noticed  a  field- 
fare (Turdus  pilaris))  which,  having  strayed  from 
its  companions  and  associated  with  starlings,  was 
called  king  of  the  starlings  by  the  peasants  of  Se- 
zaune,  in  La  Brie. 


King  of  the  Vultures. 

A  similar  custom  is  that  of  the  king  of  the  vul- 
tures (Sarcoramphus  papa,  DUMERIL),  which  is  sel- 


128  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

dom  seen  congregating  in  flocks,  but  of  whom  one 
or  two  solitary  birds  will  intermingle  with  the  Tur- 
key buzzard  (Catharista  aura,  VIEILLOT),  and,  of 
course,  appear  conspicuous  among  them  from  their 
more  striking  form  and  colours. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  similar  solitary  habits  in 
the  lion  and  the  eagle,  together  with  their  magni- 
tude and  their  strength,  have  given  origin  to  the  ti- 
tles of  king  of  the  beasts  and  king  of  the  birds,  cur- 
rent all  over  the  world.  "  The  eagle,"  says  Jonston, 
"  challengeth  the  first  place,  not  that  it  is  the  best 
dish  at  table,  for  none  will  eat  it,  but  because  it  is 
the  king  of  the  birds."*  The  ancient  Greeks  used 
the  same  term,  as  we  find  Pindar  talking  of  "  the 
great  eagle,  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  birds. "f  Jo- 
sephus,  the  Jewish  historian,  also  says  the  eagle  was 
selected  for  the  Roman  legionary  standards,  be- 
cause he  is  "  the  king  of  all  the  birds  and  the  most 
powerful  of  them  all,  whence  he  has  become  the 
emblem  of  empire  and  the  omen  of  victory  ;"J  and 
this  conclusion  is  singularly  enforced  by  Aldrovand, 
who  tells  us  that  the  eagle  "challenges  'Iragons  to 
battle  and  fights  with  them ;  attacks  bulls  and  slays 
them  ;"  adding  the  anti-climax  that  "  he  overcomes 
leverets,  tears  foxes,  and  feeds  upon  snakes.  "§ 

"  Caius  Marius,"  says  Pliny,  "  in  his  second  con- 
sulship, ordained  that  the  legions  of  Roman  soldiers 
only  should  have  the  eagle  for  their  standard,  and 
no  other  ensign ;  for  before-time  the  eagle  marched 
foremost  indeed,  but  in  a  ranke  of  four  others,  to  wit, 
of  wolves,  minotaurs,  horses,  and  boars,  which  were 
borne  each  one  before  their  own  several  squadrons 
and  companies.  Not  many  years  past,  the  standard 
of  the  eagle  alone  began  to  be  advanced  into  the 
field  of  battle,  and  the  rest  of  the  ensigns  were  left 

*  Miracles  of  Nature,  Englished  by  a  Person  of  Quality,  p. 
167,  fol.,  Lortd.,  1667. 

t  Ode  vi.,  Isthmior.        $  Josephus,  De  Bello  Judico,  iii.,  5. 
4  Ornothologia,  i.,  10. 


SOLITARY   AND    GREGARIOUS.  129 

behind  in  the  camp  ;  but  Marius  rejected  them  alto- 
gether, and  had  no  use  of  them  at  all.  And  ever 
since  this,  is  observed  ordinarily,  that  there  was  no 
standing  camp  or  leaguer  wintered  at  any  time  with- 
out a  pair  of  eagle  standards."* 

Josephus  and  Pliny,  however,  were  wrong  if  they 
thought  the  ensign  of  the  eagle  peculiar  to  the  Ro- 
mans ;  for  the  golden  eagle  with  extended  wings 
was  borne  by  the  Persian  monarchs,f  from  whom 
it  is  probable  the  Romans  adopted  it,  as  it  was  sub- 
sequently adopted  from  them  by  Napoleon  and  the 
United  States ;  while  the  Persians  themselves  may 
have  borrowed  the  symbol  from  the  ancient  Assy- 
rians, in  whose  banners  it  waved  till  Babylon  was 
conquered  by  Cyrus.  This  may  serve  to  explain 
why  the  expanded  eagle  is  so  frequently  alluded  to 
in  the  prophetical  books  of  Scripture.^  Referring, 
for  example,  to  the  king  of  Babylon,  Hosea  says, 
"  he  shall  come  as  an  eagle  ;"$  and  Ezekiel  de- 
scribes Nebuchadnezzar  as  "  a  great  eagle,  with 
great  wings,  long-winged,  full  of  feathers  which 
had  divers  colours ;"  and  the  king ,  of  Egypt  as 
"  another  great  eagle,  with  great  wings  and  many 
feathers. "||  It  was,  no  doubt,  on  the  same  account 
that  the  eagle  was  assigned  in  the  ancient  mythol- 
ogies as  the  bird  of  Jove,  a  notion  which  Lucian, 
with  his  usual  satire,  ridicules  without  mercy,  ma- 
king Momus  tell  Jupiter  he  may  think  himself  well  off 
if  it  do  not  take  a  fancy  to  build  a  nest  on  his  head.^f 

So  far  as  size  and  appearance  are  concerned,  as 
well  as  in  power  of  flight,  the  eagle  (Aquila  chry- 
saetos,  KLEIN)  must  yield  the  palm  to  the  condor  of 
America  (Sarcoramphus gryphus,  DUMERIL),  while  the 
head  of  the  latter,  "  the  likeness  of  a  kingly  crown 
has  on."  Tfce  condor,  however,  has  not  the  honour 

*  Holland's  Plinie,  x.,  4.  f  Xenophon,  Cyrop.,  vii. 

%  Paxton,  Illus.  of  Scrip.,  ii.,  13.        <j  Hosea,  viii.,  1. 
||  Ezek.  xvii.,  3-7  ;  and  La  Roque,  Voyage, 
^f  Oewv 


130 


HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 


Condor  attacking  a  Puma. 

of  ranking  among  eagles,  being  evidently,  both  from 
structure  and  habits,  nothing  but  a  vulture. 

We  can  readily  understand  why  the  least  of  our 
British  birds,  the  gold- crested  wren  (Regulus  chris- 
tatus,  RAY)  should  have  been  considered  a  royal 
bird  in  most  countries,  from  its  having  a  fine  coronet 
of  a  bright  gold-colour  on  its  head,  as  Aristotle  cor- 
rectly remarks.*  But  why  the  common  wren  (Anor- 
thura  communis)  should  be  called  a  king-bird,  we 
cannot  conjecture,  except  it  has  been  from  irony 
or  antiphrasis,  in  the  same  way  as  M.  Hebert  tells 
us  it  is  called  the  ox  (bauf)  in  some  provinces  of 
France.  From  being  unable  to  account  for  the  lat- 

*  Hist.  Anim.,  viii.,  3. 


SOLITARY   AND    GREGARIOUS.  131 

ter  fact,  Gesner,  Willoughby,  and  other  naturalists, 
accuse  Belon,  Brisson,  and  Oliva,  of  confounding  the 
two  species.  To  us,  however,  this  charge  appears 
groundless,  for  Aristotle  very  clearly  distinguishes 
the  two  birds;  and  yet  he  says  the  gold-crested 
one  is  called  a  king  (rupawoe),  and  the  common 
one  (rpox^oq)  also  is  called  a  magistrate  and  king 
(npeajSve  K.ai  paat^Evs),  "  for  which  reason,"  he  adds, 
"  the  eagle  is  said  to  fight  with  it."*  Independently 
of  this  authority,  the  popular  titles  given  to  the 
common  wren,  in  most  languages,  by  the  peasants 
who  know  nothing  of  the  disputes  of  naturalists, 
prove  that  there  must  be  some  cause  for  the  term 
unconnected  with  any  confusion  of  the  species. 
For  example,  the  Italians  call  it  the  little  king 
(reattino),  the  king  of  the  hedge  (re  di  siepe),  the 
king  of  the  birds  (redegli  uccelli) ;  the  Spaniards, 
the  kinglet  (reyezuelo) ;  the  Portuguese,  the  bird- 
king  (ave  rei) ;  the  French,  the  little  king  (roitelet), 
or  king-berry  (roi-berry),  or  the  king  of  cold  (roi  de 
froidure) ;  and  the  Germans,  the  snow-king  (schnee- 
ktinig),  and  thorn-king  (thurn-konig) .  At  the  same 
time,  we  are  aware  that  the  gold-crested  wren  has 
obtained  similar  titles,  such  as  in  Italy,  the  little 
pope  (papazzino  ) ;  in  Germany,  the  kinglet  (konig- 
chen) ;  and  in  Sweden,  kingbird  (kongs-vogel).  We 
pretend  not  to  account  for  the  universal  diffusion  of 
the  same  notion,  but  it  is  most  evident  it  does  not 
arise  from  the  mistake  that  has  been  supposed. 

It  would  appear  to  originate  from  the  singularly 
solitary  habits  of  the  jack-snipe  (Scolopax  gallinula), 
that  young  sportsmen  are  disposed  to  take  it  for  the 
male  of  the  common  snipe  (S.  gallinagd),  though  it 
is  so  very  different  in  size  and  even  in  plumage. 
"  The  jack-snipe,"  says  Mr.  Knapp,  "  is  a  solitary, 
unsocial  bird,  an  anchorite  from  choice.  With  the 
exception  of  our  birds  of  prey,  the  manner  of  whose 

*  Hist.  Anim.,  is.,  2. 


132  HABITS   OF    BIRDS. 


Jack  Snipe. 

existing  requires  it,  and  a  few  others,  all  the  feath- 
ered tribe  seem  to  have  a  general  tendency  towards 
association,  either  in  flocks,  family  parties,  or  pairs ; 
but  the  individuals  of  this  species  pass  a  large  por- 
tion of  their  lives  retired  and  alone,  two  of  them 
being  rarely,  or,  perhaps,  never  found  in  company, 
except  in  the  breeding  season.* 

Similar  remarks  may  be  applied  to  the  sandpiper 
(Totanus  hypoleucos,  TEMMINCK),  which  is  so  solita- 
ry in  habit  that  we  have  seldom  observed  two  of 
them  together,  even  during  the  breeding  season; 
though  individuals  are  very  frequently  seen  trip- 
ping along  the  sands  by  the  sides  of  lakes  and  riv- 
ers, in  pursuit  of  water-insects,  which  they  capture 
by  speed  of  foot,  seldom,  if  ever,  taking  wing  to 
continue  the  pursuit,  as  is  often  done  by  their  fel- 
low-hunter the  wagtail  (Motacilla  lotor).  We  are 
not  aware  that  they  congregate,  even  during  their 
migrations. 

From  the  foregoing  details  of  the  solitary  and 

*  Journal  of  a  Naturalist,  p.  253. 


SOLITARY    AND    GREGARIOUS.  133 

social  habits  of  birds,  it  would  seem  that  their  so- 
ciality produces  no  apparent  result,  except  it  may 
be  the  appointment  of  a  sentinel  to  give  intimation 
of  danger,  if  indeed  such  appointment  (as  may  well 
be  doubted)  actually  takes  place.  Except  in  the 
instance  of  the  sociable  grosbeak  (Loxia  soda)  of 
Africa,  we  do  not  recollect  any  authentic  instance 
of  birds  uniting  their  efforts  to  assist  in  performing 
a  common  work.  Even  in  this  instance,  the  accu- 
rate observations  of  M.  Vaillant  have  proved,  that 
so  far  from  building  streets,  as  Paterson  and  others 
represent  these  birds  to  do,  they  merely  build  their 
nests  in  actual  contact,  as  rooks  may  sometimes  be 
observed  to  do  in  this  country.  The  notion  of 
their  building  streets  is  of  the  same  character  with 
Pliny's  account  of  the  swallows  in  Egyptraising  an 
embankment  to  oppose  the  inundation  of  the  Nile, 
adopted  by  him  from  some  hasty  observer  who 
had  seen  the  bank-swallows  (Hirundo  riparia),  not 
building  (as  he  supposed),  but  mining  into  an  es- 
carpment of  the  river.  In  the  same  way  we  find 
it  related  by  authors  of  celebrity,  that  when  a  pair 
of  sparrows  take  felonious  possession  of  the  nest 
of  a  swallow,  the  swallow  summons  its  compan- 
ions to  its  assistance,  when  they  all  unite  in  a  body 
to  bring  a  sufficient  quantity  of  mortar  to  entomb 
the  robber-sparrows  alive  in  the  nest.  This  story 
is  obviously  imaginary,  and  the  fiction  is  shown 
from  the  impossibility  of  so  entombing,  by  means 
of  clay,  a  bird  with  so  powerful  a  bill  as  the  sparrow. 
M.  Dupont  de  Nemours  gives  the  following  singu- 
lar account  of  what  fell  under  his  own  observation  : 
"  I  remarked,"  he  says,  "  a  swallow  which  had  un- 
happily, and  I  cannot  imagine  in  what  manner, 
slipped  its  foot  into  a  slipknot  of  packthread,  the 
other  end  of  which  was  attached  to  a  spout  of  the 
College  of  the  Four  Nations.  Its  strength  was  ex- 
hausted ;  it  hung  at  the  end  of  the  thread,  uttered 
cries,  and  sometimes  raised  itself  as  if  making  an 
M 


134  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

effort  to  fly  away.  All  the  swallows  of  the  large 
basin  between  the  bridges  of  the  Tuileries  and  the 
Pont  Neuf,  and  perhaps  from  places  more  remote, 
had  assembled  to  the  number  of  several  thousands. 
Their  flight  was  like  a  cloud ;  all  uttered  a  cry  of 
pity  and  alarm.  After  some  hesitation  and  a  tu- 
multuous counsel,  one  of  them  fell  upon  a  device 
for  delivering  their  companion,  communicated  it  to 
the  rest,  and  began  to  put  it  into  execution.  Each 
took  his  place ;  all  those  who  were  at  hand  went  in 
turn,  as  in  the  sport  of  running  at  the  ring,  and,  in 
passing,  struck  the  thread  with  their  bills.  These 
efforts,  directed  to  one  point,  were  continued  every 
second,  and  even  more  frequently.  Half  an  hour 
was  passed  in  this  kind  of  labour  before  the  thread 
was  severed  and  the  captive  restored  to  liberty. 
But  the  flock,  only  a  little  diminished,"  adds  M. 
Dupont  de  Nemours,  "  remained  until  night,  chat- 
tering continually  in  a  tone  which  no  longer  be- 
trayed anxiety,  and  as  if  making  mutual  felicita- 
tions and  recitals  of  their  achievement." 

Now  we  doubt  not  that  these  swallows  crowded 
to  their  companion,  as  M.  Dupont  has  recorded,  for 
all  small  birds  are  apt  to  come  when  called  by  their 
fellows,  as  is  well  known  to  birdcatchers,  who 
employ  callbirds  to  bring  the  wild  ones  to  their 
nets ;  but  we  much  doubt  whether  they  united  their 
efforts  with  the  design  of  cutting  the  string,  and 
think  the  observer  must  have  been  deceived  as  to 
this  particular.  In  a  similar  instance  of  a  pair  of 
sparrows  becoming  entangled,  which  fell  under  our 
observation,  their  neighbours  crowded  to  the  place, 
but,  apparently,  only  for  the  purpose  of  scolding, 
not  of  assisting  the  entangled  birds. 

It  is  rare  indeed  among  quadrupeds,  and  rarer 
still,  if  it  occur  at  all,  among  birds,  to  meet  with 
instances  of  mutual  assistance,  such  as  we  find  so 
strikingly  exemplified  among  social  insects.  Bea- 
vers unite  in  forming  dams  across  a  stream  and  in 


SOLITARY   AND    GREGARIOUS.  135 

burrowing  out  chambers  in  the  banks ;  but  stories 
are  told  of  the  mutual  assistance  of  other  quadru- 
peds, evidently  as  much  overcoloured  as  that  of  M. 
Dupont's  swallows. 

The  only  obvious  and  decided  instance  of  mutual 
assistance,  which  we  recollect  as  occurring  among 
birds,  is  that  of  parents  feeding  their  young,  keeping 
them  clean  and  warm,  and  defending  them  against 
enemies.  But  in  order  to  secure  warmth,  many 
species  certainly  take  advantage  of  the  animal  heat 
of  their  kindred,  and  we  may  with  some  plausibility 
say,  that  in  most  cases  this  is  done  by  mutual  suf- 
ferance, if  not  by  distinct  permission. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary,  as  well  as  one 
of  the  best  ascertained  facts  in  the  animal  economy, 
though  by  no  means,  as  yet,  satisfactorily  explained, 
that  the  interior  heat  of  warm-blooded  animals  va- 
ries extremely  little  in  the  coldest  and  in  the  hottest 
climates. 

This  law,  by  which  animal  temperature  is  main- 
tained at  nearly  the  same  degree  on  exposure  to 
considerable  heat  or  cold,  supplies  the  only  known 
reason  why  some  of  the  smaller  and  seemingly  ten- 
der animals  outlive  the  rigours  of  the  severest  win- 
ters. The  magpie  (Pica  caudata,  RAY),  though  rather 
a  hardy  bird,  has  been  found  having  recourse  to 
what  is  often  practised  by  smaller  birds,  several  of 
them  huddling  together  during  the  night,  to  keep 
each  other  warm.  A  gentleman  of  intelligence  and 
veracity  informed  us  that  he  once  saw  a  number  of 
these  birds  (probably  a  young  family  with  their  pa- 
rents) on  a  tree,  in  a  fir  plantation,  sitting  so  closely 
together  that  they  all  seemed  to  be  rolled  up  into  a 
single  ball. 

It  is  a  very  curious  and  remarkable  circumstance, 
that  many  species  of  birds  which  are  solitary  at 
one  period  of  the  year,  are  gregarious  at  another ; 
and  though  it  is  possible  to  account  for  this  in  some 
instances,  it  becomes  not  a  little  difficult  in  others. 


134  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

effort  to  fly  away.  All  the  swallows  of  the  large 
basin  between  the  bridges  of  the  Tuileries  and  the 
Pont  Neuf,  and  perhaps  from  places  more  remote, 
had  assembled  to  the  number  of  several  thousands. 
Their  flight  was  like  a  cloud ;  all  uttered  a  cry  of 
pity  and  alarm.  After  some  hesitation  and  a  tu- 
multuous counsel,  one  of  them  fell  upon  a  device 
for  delivering  their  companion,  communicated  it  to 
the  rest,  and  began  to  put  it  into  execution.  Each 
took  his  place ;  all  those  who  were  at  hand  went  in 
turn,  as  in  the  sport  of  running  at  the  ring,  and,  in 
passing,  struck  the  thread  with  their  bills.  These 
efforts,  directed  to  one  point,  were  continued  every 
second,  and  even  more  frequently.  Half  an  hour 
was  passed  in  this  kind  of  labour  before  the  thread 
was  severed  and  the  captive  restored  to  liberty. 
But  the  flock,  only  a  little  diminished,"  adds  M. 
Dupont  de  Nemours,  "  remained  until  night,  chat- 
tering continually  in  a  tone  which  no  longer  be- 
trayed anxiety,  and  as  if  making  mutual  felicita- 
tions and  recitals  of  their  achievement." 

Now  we  doubt  not  that  these  swallows  crowded 
to  their  companion,  as  M.  Dupont  has  recorded,  for 
all  small  birds  are  apt  to  come  when  called  by  their 
fellows,  as  is  well  known  to  birdcatchers,  who 
employ  callbirds  to  bring  the  wild  ones  to  their 
nets ;  but  we  much  doubt  whether  they  united  their 
efforts  with  the  design  of  cutting  the  string,  and 
think  the  observer  must  have  been  deceived  as  to 
this  particular.  In  a  similar  instance  of  a  pair  of 
sparrows  becoming  entangled,  which  fell  under  our 
observation,  their  neighbours  crowded  to  the  place, 
but,  apparently,  only  for  the  purpose  of  scolding, 
not  of  assisting  the  entangled  birds. 

It  is  rare  indeed  among  quadrupeds,  and  rarer 
still,  if  it  occur  at  all,  among  birds,  to  meet  with 
instances  of  mutual  assistance,  such  as  we  find  so 
strikingly  exemplified  among  social  insects.  Bea- 
vers unite  in  forming  dams  across  a  stream  and  in 


SOLITARY   AND    GREGARIOUS.  135 

burrowing  out  chambers  in  the  banks ;  but  stories 
are  told  of  the  mutual  assistance  of  other  quadru- 
peds, evidently  as  much  overcoloured  as  that  of  M. 
Dupont's  swallows. 

The  only  obvious  and  decided  instance  of  mutual 
assistance,  which  we  recollect  as  occurring  among 
birds,  is  that  of  parents  feeding  their  young,  keeping 
them  clean  and  warm,  and  defending  them  against 
enemies.  But  in  order  to  secure  warmth,  many 
species  certainly  take  advantage  of  the  animal  heat 
of  their  kindred,  and  we  may  with  some  plausibility 
say,  that  in  most  cases  this  is  done  by  mutual  suf- 
ferance, if  not  by  distinct  permission. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary,  as  well  as  one 
of  the  best  ascertained  facts  in  the  animal  economy, 
though  by  no  means,  as  yet,  satisfactorily  explained, 
that  the  interior  heat  of  warm-blooded  animals  va- 
ries extremely  little  in  the  coldest  and  in  the  hottest 
climates. 

This  law,  by  which  animal  temperature  is  main- 
tained at  nearly  the  same  degree  on  exposure  to 
considerable  heat  or  cold,  supplies  the  only  known 
reason  why  some  of  the  smaller  and  seemingly  ten- 
der animals  outlive  the  rigours  of  the  severest  win- 
ters. The  magpie  (Pica  caudata,  RAY),  though  rather 
a  hardy  bird,  has  been  found  having  recourse  to 
what  is  often  practised  by  smaller  birds,  several  of 
them  huddling  together  during  the  night,  to  keep 
each  other  warm.  A  gentleman  of  intelligence  and 
veracity  informed  us  that  he  once  saw  a  number  of 
these  birds  (probably  a  young  family  with  their  pa- 
rents) on  a  tree,  in  a  fir  plantation,  sitting  so  closely 
together  that  they  all  seemed  to  be  rolled  up  into  a 
single  ball. 

It  is  a  very  curious  and  remarkable  circumstance, 
that  many  species  of  birds  which  are  solitary  at 
one  period  of  the  year,  are  gregarious  at  another ; 
and  though  it  is  possible  to  account  for  this  in  some 
instances,  it  becomes  not  a  little  difficult  in  others. 


136  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

The  lark,  during  the  summer  months,  is  decidedly 
unsocial;  for  though  we  may  meet  with  two  or 
three  pairs  in  the  same  field,  we  seldom  find  their 
nests  near  each  other.  They  are  not  quarrelsome 
and  pugnacious,  like  the  redbreasts,  but  they  seem 
to  prefer  a  secluded  spot  to  a  crowded  neighbour- 
hood. The  young  larks,  after  leaving  their  nest, 
seem  equally  unsocial,  and  do  not,  like  most  nest- 
lings, keep  together  in  a  band,  but  prefer  to  wander 
about  the  field  by  themselves,  though  this  must  in- 
crease the  trouble  of  their  parents  in  bringing  them 
food.  Yet  these  seemingly  unsocial  birds,  as  soon 
as  the  breeding  season  is  fully  over,  flock  together 
in  numbers  almost  incredible,  and  have  then  been 
caught  for  the  table  in  most  countries  of  Europe 
from  the  earliest  times,  as  in  Greece,  Italy,  and 
England.  The  numbers  taken  in  France  may  be 
guessed  at  from  the  account  of  Montbeillard,  who 
says,  "  a  hundred  dozen  or  more  are  sometimes 
taken  at  once,  and  it  is  reckoned  very  bad  sport 
when  only  twenty-five  dozen  are  got." 

What  we  have  said  of  larks  will  nearly  apply  to 
linnets,  chaffinches,  the  two  house-swallows,  and 
several  other  species,  which  breed  in  solitary  pairs, 
and  congregate  at  the  approach  of  winter.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark,  that  most,  if  not  all,  of  these 
broods  are  more  or  less  migratory,  either  leaving 
the  country  altogether,  or  shifting  from  one  district 
to  another ;  and,  looking  at  the  facts  in  this  point 
of  view,  we  may  plausibly  conjecture  that  the 
young  broods  take  advantage  of  the  experience  of 
the  older  birds  in  removing  to  a  more  genial  cli- 
mate, or  to  places  more  abounding  in  food. 


PAIRING.  137 

CHAPTER  XL 

PAIRING    OF   BIRDS. 

IT  would  not  be  easy  to  select  a  more  striking 
instance  of  the  wisdom  displayed  in  regulating  the 
works  of  creation,  than  the  extraordinary,  and,  to 
us,  inexplicable  fact  of  the  males  and  females  of  all 
animals  being  always  found  in  nearly  the  same  pro- 
portional numbers.  With  respect  to  mankind,  for 
example,  it  has  been  proved,  by  taking  a  census  of 
the  population  in  different  countries,  that  the  ratio 
of  the  two  sexes  shows  very  little  variation.  Hufe- 
land  found  that  in  Germany  there  are  about  twenty- 
one  males  to  twenty  females ;  and  by  the  popula- 
tion returns  for  England  and  Wales  from  1811  to 
1820,  the  number  of  males  born  was  1,664,557,  and 
of  females,  1,590,510.  It  has  been  inferred  that  the 
uniform  excess  of  male  births  is  providentially  de- 
signed to  meet  the  greater  mortality  arising  from 
men  being,  by  their  habits  of  life,  more  exposed  to 
dangers.  No  physiological  investigation  hitherto 
attempted  has  been  successful  in  elucidating  the 
more  immediate  causes  of  these  wonderful  facts, 
though  some  of  the  laws  by  which  they  are  regu- 
lated have  recently  been  successfully  traced  by  the 
curious  experiments  of  M.  Girou  de  Buzareingues, 
who  found,  that  with  respect  to  the  ages  of  the  in- 
dividuals paired,  and  the  proportion  of  the  sexes 
produced,  nearly  the  same  principles  held  good 
among  fowls  as  among  quadrupeds,  at  least  when 
both  were  domesticated. 

The  males  of  quadrupeds  seldom  lend  any  assist- 
ance whatever  in  taking  care  of  the  young.  The 
assistance  of  the  male,  indeed,  in  most  animals 
which  suckle  their  young,  is  not  at  all  wanted,  and 
hence  he  seldom  takes  any  notice,  or  even  knows  of 
M2 


138  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

the  existence,  of  his  offspring.  Among  insects  there 
is  still  less  need  of  the  aid  of  the  male,  so  far  at  least 
as  food  is  concerned ;  for  very  few  insect  parents 
live  to  see  their  offspring.  Insects,  in  most  cases, 
finding  their  own  food  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched, 
it  is  the  chief  care  of  the  mother  to  deposite  her 
eggs  where  appropriate  food  may  be  readily  ob- 
tained by  her  progeny.  Food,  indeed,  is  in  some 
instances  collected  by  the  mother  and  brought  to 
the  place  where  her  eggs  are  deposited;  but  the 
male  parent  never  shares  either  in  the  labour  of 
procuring  it  or  in  the  construction  of  the  nest  for 
its  reception ;  while  in  the  singular  exceptions  fur- 
nished by  ants  and  other  insects  living  in  commu- 
nities, neither  the  males  nor  the  females,  but  a  pe- 
culiar race  of  nurse  insects,  provide  the  necessary 
food  for  the  young.  Among  birds,  on  the  other 
hand,  food  for  the  young  has  in  most  instances  to 
be  brought  from  a  distance,  and  much  assiduity  is 
required  to  collect  it  in  sufficient  quantity,  the  vo- 
racity of  nestlings  being  almost  insatiable.  Among 
them,  therefore,  the  assistance  of  the  male  in  this 
work  is  in  most  species  almost  indispensable.  When 
the  brood  is  numerous,  it  would  be  extremely  diffi- 
cult, if  not  impossible,  for  the  female  alone  to  pro- 
cure the  requisite  supply.  Rooks,  for  example, 
which  feed  their  young  upon  the  grubs  of  chafers 
and  similar  insects,  have  often  to  make  long  excur- 
sions from  their  nest-trees  before  they  can  find  the 
required  prey ;  and  if  this  task  were  assigned  to  the 
female  alone,  she  could  not  obtain  enough  to  sus- 
tain her  own  wants  and  the  incessant  cravings  of 
five  young  ones,  which  will  readily  devour  their 
own  weight  of  food  in  the  course  of  a  single  day. 
Accordingly,  when  the  rooks,  as  they  sometimes 
do,  build  a  second  nest  late  in  the  season,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  first  being  destroyed,  they  find  it 
scarcely  possible  to  rear  their  young ;  the  warmth 
of  the  advancing  summer  drying  up  the  ground,  and 


PAIRING.  139 

forcing  the  grubs  and  worms  so  deep  into  it  as  to 
be  out  of  reach,  while,  the  operations  of  plough- 
ing and  digging  having  almost  ceased,  they  have 
little  aid  from  the  labours  of  man.  In  such  cases 
it  has  been  remarked,  that  "  the  constant  clamour 
of  the  young  for  food,  so  unusual  in  nestling  birds, 
renders  it  manifest  that  the  labours  and  exertions 
of  the  parents  cannot  supply  a  sufficiency  for  their 
requirements."*  If,  then,  the  difficulty  is  so  consid- 
erable when  both  parents  conjoin  their  labours,  it 
may  be  inferred  that  it  would,  even  in  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, be  too  much  for  the  female  alone,  more 
particularly  as  her  energies  must  be  somewhat  im- 
paired by  the  previous  fatigue  undergone  in  the 
process  of  hatching.  During  this  process  the  aid 
of  the  male  is  no  less  indispensable  than  in  feeding 
the  young. 

It  is  obvious,  that  while  the  hen  has  to  sit  for  a 
number  of  days  in  order  to  hatch  her  eggs,  and  can- 
not, as  we  shall  afterward  see,  leave  them  for  many 
minutes  without  incurring  the  risk  of  destroying 
the  embryo  chicks,  she  must  either  run  this  hazard 
or  perish  of  hunger,  unless  she  had  food  brought  to 
her.  This,  indeed,  may  be  considered  as  almost  the 
commencement  of  the  labours  of  the  male  bird; 
for,  though  he  helps  a  little  in  the  building  of  the 
nest,  he  does  not  work  at  it  with  the  unwearied  as- 
siduity of  the  female.  In  the  instance  of  the  ca- 
pocier  (Sylvia  macroura),  Vaillant  tells  us  that  he 
observed  the  female  to  be  much  more  active  and 
anxious  about  the  building  than  the  male,  even 
punishing  him  for  being  frolicksome  and  idle  by 
pecking  him  with  her  beak ;  while,  in  revenge,  he 
would  sometimes  set  about  pulling  portions  of  the 
nest  to  pieces. 

Independently,  then,  of  assisting  to  build  the  nest, 
the  female  evidently  could  not  well  perform  her 

*  Journal  of  a  Naturalist,  p.  259,  3d  edition. 


140  HABITS   OF   BIRDS.        • 

domestic  duties  if  left  to  her  own  efforts ;  though 
among  polygamous  birds,  as  we  shall  subsequently 
notice,  this  remark  requires  to  be  taken  with  some 
modification.  The  instinct,  or  whatever  it  may  be 
called,  which  leads  birds  to  anticipate,  foresee,  and 
provide  for  this  necessity,  we  cannot,  in  our  pres- 
ent state  of  knowledge,  trace  to  its  immediate 
causes;  and  we  must,  therefore,  rest  contented 
with  the  knowledge  of  the  observed  facts.  Some 
of  these  are  not  a  little  interesting,  particularly  on 
account  of  the  close  resemblance  of  the  proceed- 
ings of  birds  to  our  own ;  a  resemblance  that  does 
not  hold  with  those  of  other  classes  of  animals. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  birds  of  prey  would  be 
in  the  first  instance  somewhat  afraid  of  each  other 
in  their  preliminary  communications;  at  least  an 
entomologist  would  readily  suppose  so,  from  know- 
ing that  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  among  predacious 
insects  for  the  females  to  make  prey  of  the  males, 
even  after  pairing.  Birds  of  prey,  however,  though, 
when  pressed  by  hunger,  they  might  not  refuse  to 
destroy  their  own  species,  are  not,  like  spiders,  ac- 
tuated by  indiscriminate  cannibal  voracity;  and 
though  some  of  the  more  powerful  eagles  (Haliatus 
leucocephalus,  SAVIGNY,  &c.)  will  pursue  their  con- 
geners and  force  them  to  surrender  the  prey  they 
may  have  caught,  yet  we  are  not  aware  of  any  re- 
corded instance  of  one  eagle  making  prey  of  an- 
other, as  spiders  are  known  to  do,  and  as  is  com- 
mon among  fish.  On  the  contrary,  the  males  and 
females  of  birds  of  prey  appear  to  be  more  closely 
attached  than  those  of  most  other  species.  They 
continue  together  not  only  during  the  breeding  sea- 
son, but  throughout  the  year,  and  even  for  a  long 
succession  of  years,  at  least  if  we  may  trust  to  the 
circumstantial  evidence  of  a  pair  of  eagles  fre- 
quenting the  same  locality  and  building  on  the 
same  spot. 

The  evidence,  indeed,  for  the  birds  being  always 


PAIRING. 


Whiteheaded  Eagle  and  Fish-hawk. 


142  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

the  same  is  incomplete;  yet,  on  the  supposition 
that  it  is  not  the  same,  but  successive  pairs,  which 
are  observed  in  the  same  place,  we  are  led  to  the 
curious  inquiry  how  the  death  or  disappearance  of 
one  pair  is  supplied  by  another.  We  have  in  more 
than  one  instance  observed  a  pair  of  magpies  nestle 
on  the  same  tree  for  a  series  of  years,  where  they 
reared  a  brood  of  four  or  five  young  ones  every 
season.  All  of  these  disappeared  from  the  neigh- 
bourhood ;  at  least,  we  observed  no  increase  in  the 
number  of  nests.  In  one  instance  we  observed  a 
magpie's  nest  thus  successively  occupied  for  ten 
years. 

The  continuance  of  a  nest  in  the  same  spot  for 
several  years  is  more  remarkable  in  the  case  of 
migratory  birds  than  in  that  of  magpies,  which  do 
not  migrate,  and  seldom  go  to  any  considerable 
distance  from  their  breeding  trees.  There  has  been, 
in  a  garden  adjacent  to  ours,  the  nest  of  a  black-cap 
(Sylvia  alricapilla)  for  a  succession  of  years,  and 
broods  have  been  successively  reared  there,  with- 
out any  observable  increase  in  the  population  of  the 
species.  Yet  this  bird,  which  is  little  bigger  than  a 
wren,  weighing  only  half  an  ounce,  has  to  traverse 
annually  the  whole  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and 
probably  a  great  proportion  of  the  north  of  Africa, 
exposed,  of  course,  to  numerous  accidents,  as  well 
as  to  occasional  scarcity  of  its  appropriate  food. 
From  the  regular  annual  restoration,  however,  of 
this  nest  at  the  same  spot,  it  is  obvious  that  one,  if 
not  both  of  the  black- caps,  must  have  been  wont  to 
perform  this  extensive  migration  to  and  from  Af- 
rica as  safely  as  the  more  hardy  cuckoo  or  the 
more  swift-winged  swallow.  During  the  spring  of 
1831,  the  back-caps,  which  we  suppose  to  be  the 
same  birds,  from  their  keeping  to  the  same  place 
of  nestling,  were  more  than  usually  late  in  arri- 
ving ;  for  in  another  garden  about  a  mile  off  there 
were  young  in  the  hereditary  nest  of  black-caps 


PAIRING.  143 

before  our  little  neighbours  made  their  appear- 
ance from  the  South.  When  they  did  arrive,  their 
attention  was  immediately  attracted  by  the  unusual 
circumstance  of  hearing  the  loud  song  of  a  rival  in 
the  vicinity  of  their  premises.  This  was  a  male 
black-cap,  which  we  had  purchased  the  preceding 
autumn  in  the  bird-market  at  Paris,  arid  which  was 
daily  hung  out  in  his  cage  to  enjoy  the  fresh  air 
and  the  sunshine,  within  a  gunshot  cf  their  usual 
place  of  nestling.  The  wild  birds  did  not  appeal  to 
like  the  little  stranger  at  all;  and  the  male  kept 
flying  around  the  cage,  alternately  exhibiting  curi- 
osity, fear,  anger,  defiance,  and  triumphant  exulta- 
tion. Sometimes  he  would  flit  from  branch  to 
branch  of  the  nearest  tree,  silently  peeping  into  the 
cage  with  the  utmost  eagerness;  all  at  once  he 
would  dart  off  to  a  great  distance,  as  if  afraid  that 
he  was  about  to  be  similarly  imprisoned ;  or,  getting 
the  better  of  his  fears,  he  would  perch  on  a  con- 
spicuous bough  and  snap  his  bill,  calling  check,  check, 
seemingly  in  a  great  passion ;  again  he  would  sing 
his  loudest  notes  by  way  of  challenge,  or,  perhaps, 
meaning  to  express  his  independence  and  superior- 
ity. Our  cage-bird,  meanwhile,  was  by  no  means 
a  passive  spectator  of  all  this ;  and  never  failed,  on 
the  appearance  of  the  other,  to  give  voice  to  his 
best  song  and  to  endeavour  to  outsing  him,  since  he 
could  not  get  at  him  to  engage  in  personal  conflict. 
This  sort  of  altercation  continued  for  more  than 
a  week ;  but  the  wild  bird  became  gradually  less  ea- 
ger to  pry  into  the  cage  or  to  take  any  other  notice 
of  the  cage  bird,  and  at  length  ceased  altogether 
to  approach  it,  his  attention  being  now  wholly  oc- 
cupied in  attending  to  his  mate,  and  aiding  her  in 
building  her  nest.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that 
though,  on  their  first  appearance,  they  resorted  to  the 
garden  where  the  nest  had  hitherto  been  built,  they 
finally  fixed  their  residence  in  another  garden  at 
some  distance,  induced  no  doubt  by  the  vicinity  of 


144  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

our  cage-bird  to  their  former  haunts.  The  distance 
of  the  place  to  which  they  removed  is  such,  that  we 
can  readily  hear  the  song  of  the  male,  and  our  bird 
is  no  less  eager  to  answer  and  to  endeavour  to  out- 
sing  him  than  at  first ;  while  it  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  the  wild  bird  seems  no  longer  interested  in 
such  rivalry,  and  sings  as  if  his  only  concern  was 
to  please  himself  and  his  mate. 

Now  we  think  it  a  very  probable  inference,  from 
this  little  narrative,  that,  had  the  wild  male  black- 
cap by  any  accident  been  killed,  the  hen  would  have 
readily  paired  with  our  bird  or  any  other  which  had 
made  its  appearance  ;  for  it  must  have  been  the  nat- 
ural dread  of  her  preferring  our  bird,  that  actuated 
him  in  his  various  expressions  of  passion  which  we 
have  just  recorded.  This  conclusion  is  corrobora- 
ted by  his  subsequent  behaviour  as  soon  as  he  felt 
secure  in  the  affections  of  his  mate  by  her  com- 
mencing the  nest  under  his  own  auspices. 

About  the  same  period  of  time  we  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  observing  the  proceedings  of  some  other 
cage-birds  of  different  species  in  their  preparations 
for  breeding.  It  is  well  known  to  be  a  common 
practice  among  bird-fanciers  to  pair  hen  canaries 
with  males  of  other  species  of  the  same  genus,  or 
such  as  resemble  them  the  nearest  in  size  and  hab- 
its ;  and  as  we  possessed  two  such  males  in  a  gold- 
finch and  a  siskin  (Carduelis  spinus,  BRISSON),  we  put 
them  both  into  a  large  breeding-cage  along  with  a 
hen  canary.  It  was  not  a  little  amusing  to  observe 
the  exertions  of  these  two  birds  in  trimming  their 
feathers,  singing  at  the  utmost  pitch  of  their  voices, 
as  if  each  were  determined  not  to  be  outsung  by  his 
rival ;  and  more  than  once,  before  any  nest  was  be- 
gun, we  observed  them  bringing  her  food  in  their 
bills  by  way  of  present.  From  the  first,  however, 
she  showed  a  marked  dislike  to  the  goldfinch,  though 
the  finest  beau  of  the  two,  being  the  brightest  col- 
oured bird  even  of  this  beautiful  species  we  ever 


PAIRING.  145 

saw ;  while  the  siskin,  independently  of  his  less  gay 
colours,  had  lost  his  tail,  and  was,  besides,  quite  bald, 
from  the  habit  he  had  of  rubbing  his  head  along  the 
wires  of  the  cage.  With  all  these  disadvantages, 
nevertheless,  in  the  personal  appearance  of  the  sis- 
kin, added  to  his  inferiority  of  song  (rendered  worse 
by  the  harsh  cackling  note  which  he  seldom  failed 
to  give  as  a  finale  to  his  most  melodious  passages, 
contrasting  strongly  with  the  merry  musical  twinkle 
of  the  goldfinch's  finale),  the  latter  received  no- 
thing for  his  assiduities  but  a  loud  scolding,  or, 
sometimes,  a  hearty  drubbing,  the  canary  being  by 
far  the  most  powerful  bird,  and  being  never  loath  to 
let  him  feel  the  sharpness  of  her  beak.  The  siskin 
being  evidently  the  favourite,  we  had  the  goldfinch 
removed  ;  but  as  his  cage  was  hung  up  near  the  oth- 
er, he  continued  to  give  himself  all  the  airs  which 
had  already  proved  so  unavailing.  But  the  siskin, 
precisely  like  the  wild  black-cap  already  mentioned, 
almost  immediately  relaxed  in  his  assiduities  to 
please ;  and,  though  he  was  not  inattentive  during 
the  incubation  which  followed,  yet  he  seldom  strove 
to  outsing  the  goldfinch,  but  warbled  in  a  subdued, 
under  tone  of  voice,  as  much  as  to  indicate  that  he 
cared  not  how  well  or  how  loud  his  old  rival  might 
now  sing. 

Montagu  was  of  opinion  that  birds  which  have 
not  paired  wander  about  continually  till  they  find  a 
mate,  in  support  of  which  he  adduces  several  cu- 
rious facts  which  fell  under  his  observation.  In  the 
instance  of  the  nightingale,  if  by  accident  the  fe- 
male is  killed,  the  male,  who  has  become  silent 
about  the  end  of  June,  will  resume  his  song  and 
will  continue  to  sing  late  in  the  summer  or  till  he 
finds  another  mate.  "  This,"  continues  Montagu, 
"  we  have  proved  by  taking  the  female  on  her  nest, 
when  the  mate  assumed  his  usual  vociferous  notes, 
which  attracted  another  female."  It  would  appear, 
indeed,  that  in  birds  which  pair,  nature  has  pro- 
N 


146  HABITS  OF    BIRDS. 

duced  nearly  an  equal  number  of  both  sexes ;  and 
yet,  if  either  the  male  or  the  female  be  killed  be- 
fore breeding,  the  remaining  bird  usually  finds  a 
second  mate.  The  male  of  the  migrative  species 
Mantagu  thinks  never  quits  the  place  he  first  resorts 
to,  but  attracts  the  females  by  his  song ;  and  hence, 
he  conceives,  it  is  probable  that  such  females  as 
have  not  at  first'paired,  or  lost  their  mates  by  acci- 
dent, continually  wander  about  in  search  of  another. 

We  have  a  similar  instance  to  those  mentioned  by 
Montagu  recorded  by  Professor  Kalm.  "  A  couple 
of  swallows,"  he  says,  "built  their  nest  in  a  sta- 
ble, and  the  female  laid  eggs  in  the  nest,  and  was 
about  to  brood  them.  Some  days  afterward  the 
people  saw  the  female  still  sitting  on  the  eggs ;  but 
the  male,  flying  about  the  nest,  and  sometimes  set- 
tling on  a  nail,  was  heard  to  utter  a  very  plaintive 
note,  which  betrayed  his  uneasiness.  On  a  nearer 
examination,  the  female  was  found  dead  in  the  nest ; 
and  the  people  flung  her  body  away.  The  male 
then  went  to  sit  upon  the  eggs;  but,  after  being 
about  two  hours  on  them,  and  perhaps  finding  the 
business  too  troublesome,  he  went  out,  and  return- 
ed in  the  afternoon  with  another  female,  which  sat 
upon  the  nest,  and  afterward  fed  the  young  ones 
till  they  were  able  to  provide  for  themselves. 

That  it  is  not  the  male  alone,  however,  which  is 
thus  able  to  procure  a  second  mate,  appears  from 
the  remarks  of  White.  "  Among  the  monogamous 
birds,"  he  says,  "  several  are  to  be  found,  after 
pairing  time,  single,  and  of  each  sex  ;'but  whether 
this  state  of  celibacy  is  matter  of  choice  or  neces- 
sity is  not  so  easily  discoverable.  When  the  house- 
sparrows  deprive  my  martins  of  their  nests,  as  soon 
as  I  cause  one  to  be  shot,  the  other,  be  it  male  or 
female,  presently  procures  a  mate,  and  so  for  sev- 
eral times  following.  I  have  known  a  dovehouse 
infested  by  a  pair  of  white  owls,  which  made  great 
havoc  among  young  pigeons.  One  of  the  owls 


PAIRING.  147 

was  shot  as  soon  as  possible ;  but  the  surviver  read- 
ily found  a  mate,  and,  the  mischief  went  on.  After 
some  time  the  new  pair  were  both  destroyed,  and 
the  annoyance  ceased.  Another  instance,  I  re- 
member, of  a  sportsman,  whose  zeal  for  the  in- 
crease of  his  game  being  greater  than  his  human- 
ity, after  pairing  time  he  always  shot  the  male  bird 
of  every  couple  of  partridges  upon  his  grounds,  sup- 
posing that  the  rivalry  of  many  males  interrupted 
the  breed.  He  used  to  say,  that  though  he  had 
widowed  the  same  hen  several  times,  yet  he  found 
she  was  still  provided  with  a  fresh  paramour  that 
did  not  take  her  away  from  her  usual  haunt."* 

In  opposition  to  this  doctrine  there  is  one  in- 
stance, which  has  been  celebrated  from  the  earliest 
ages,  the  turtle-dove,  being  represented  as  the  very 
emblem  of  conjugal  love  and  fidelity.  The  dark  or 
black-coloured  turtle-dove,  it  is  said,  was  employed 
by  the  Egyptians  as  the  hieroglyphic  of  chaste  wid- 
owhood, it  being  understood  that,  when  one  of  a  pair 
was  killed,  the  other  never  joined  with  a  second 
mate.  "  They  be  passing  chaste,"  says  Pliny,  "  and 
neither  male  nor  female  change  their  mate,  but  keep 
together  one  true  unto  the  other.  They  abandon 
not  their  own  nests,  unless  they  be  in  a  state  of  sin- 
gle life  or  widowhood  by  death  of  their  fellow.  The 
females  are  very  meek  and  patient ;  they  will  en- 
dure and  abide  their  imperious  males,  notwithstand- 
ing, otherwhiles,  they  be  very  churlish  unto  them, 
offering  them  wrong  and  hard  measure,  so  jealous 
be  they  of  the  hens,  and  suspicious,  though  without 
any  cause,  for  passing  chaste  and  continent  by  na- 
nure  they  are."  The  poets  follow  naturally  in  the 
same  opinion,  and  hence  from  Ovid  and  Dante  down 
to  our  own  times,  we  meet  with  comparisons  and 
allusions  thence  derived,  as  if  the  fact  were  ascer- 
tained beyond  question. 

*  Nat.  Hist,  of  Selboume,  letter  34. 


148  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

The  fact,  however,  of  doves  acting  in  this  man- 
ner, so  far  from  being  correct,  may  be  easily  dis- 
proved by  any  one  who  will  take  the  trouble,  as 
well  as  by  circumstances  mentioned  by  the  very 
writers  just  quoted.  Aristotle,  indeed,  though  he 
hints  in  one  place  his  belief  in  the  common  opinion, 
mentions  in  another  that  he  had  known  doves  change 
their  mates.  The  fact,  moreover,  that  these  birds  are 
easily  enticed  from  their  own  dovecots  to  others, 
and  thus  become  lost  to  their  owners,  is  but  too 
well  known  to  everybody  who  has  ever  kept  them. 
"  Some,"  says  Pliny,  "  use  means  to  keep  pigeons 
in  their  dovehouse  (for  otherwise  they  be  birds 
that  love  to  be  ranging  and  wandering  abroad), 
namely,  by  slitting  and  cutting  the  joints  of  their 
wings  with  some  thin  sharp  piece  of  gold  ;  for  if  you 
do  not  so,  their  wounds  will  fester  and  be  dangerous. 
And  in  very  troth,  these  birds  be  soon  seduced  and 
trained  away  from  their  own  homes  ;  and  they  have 
a  cast  with  them  to  flatter  and  entice  one  another : 
they  take  a  great  delight  to  inveigle  others,  and  to 
steal  away  some  pigeons  from  their  own  flocks,  and 
evermore  to  come  home  better  accompanied  than 
they  went  forth."  Now  all  this  is  evidently  in  di- 
rect contradiction  to  what  we  have  quoted  from  the 
preceding  page  of  the  same  work.  M.  Ray  also  in- 
formed Buffon,  that  notwithstanding  the  reputation 
of  the  turtle-dove  for  conjugal  constancy,  he  found 
the  females  of  those  which  were  confined  in  vole- 
ries  living  almost  promiscuously  with  the  males. 
Nay,  M.  Ray  asserts  that  he  has  observed  the  wild 
turtle-doves  living  in  the  same  manner  on  the  same 
tree.  The  common  opinion,  therefore,  appears  from 
these  circumstances  to  be  manifestly  erroneous. 

We  meet,  however,  with  instances  among  other 
birds  of  affectionate  conjugality  well  worthy  of  be- 
ing recorded ;  and  we  shall  give  one  example  of 
this  kind,  as  described  by  Bingley,  that  occurred  in 
a  pair  of  the  Guinea  parrot  (Psittacus  pullarius). 


PAIRING.  149 

"  A  male  and  female  of  this  species  were  lodged  to- 
gether in  a  large  square  cage.  The  vessel  which 
held  their  food  was  placed  at  the  bottom.  The 
male  usually  sat  on  the  same  perch  with  the  female, 
and  close  beside  her.  Whenever  one  descended 
for  food,  the  other  always  followed  ;  and  when  their 
hunger  was  satisfied,  they  returned  together  to  the 
highest  perch  of  the  cage.  They  passed  four  years 
together  in  this  state  of  confinement ;  and  from 
their  mutual  attentions  and  satisfaction,  it  was  evi- 
dent that  a  strong  affection  for  each  other  had  been 
excited.  At  the  end  of  this  period  the  female  fell 
into  a  state  of  languor  which  had  every  symptom 
of  old  age ;  her  legs  swelled,  and  knots  appeared 
upon  them,  as  if  the  disease  had  been  of  the  nature 
of  gout.  It  was  no  longer  possible  for  her  to  de- 
scend and  take  her  food  as  formerly ;  but  the  male 
assiduously  brought  it  her,  carrying  it  in  his  bill 
and  delivering  it  into  hers.  He  continued  to  feed 
her  in  this  manner  with  the  utmost  vigilance  for  four 
months.  The  infirmities  of  his  mate,  however,  in- 
creased every  day,  and  at  length  she  became  no 
longer  able  to  sit  upon  the  perch :  she  remained 
crouched  at  the  bottom,  and  from  time  to  time  made 
a  few  useless  efforts  to  regain  the  lower  perch ; 
while  the  male,  who  remained  close  by  her,  sec- 
onded these  feeble  attempts  with  all  his  power. 
Sometimes  he  seized  with  his  bill  the  upper  part  of 
her  wing,  to  try  to  draw  her  up  to  him  :  sometimes 
he  took  hold  of  her  bill  and  attempted  to  raise  her 
up,  repeating  his  efforts  for  that  purpose  several 
times.  His  countenance,  his  gestures,  his  continual 
solicitude,  everything,  in  short,  indicated  in  this  af- 
fectionate bird  an  ardent  desire  to  aid  the  weakness 
of  his  companion,  and  to  alleviate  her  sufferings. 
But  the  scene  became  still  more  interesting  when 
the  female  was  at  the  point  of  expiring.  Her  un- 
fortunate partner  went  round  and  round  her  without 
ceasing ;  he  redoubled  his  assiduities  and  his  tender 
N2 


150  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

cares ;  he  attempted  to  open  her  bill,  in  order  to 
give  her  nourishment;  his  emotion  every  instant 
increased ;  he  went  to  her,  and  returned  with  the 
most  agitated  air  and  with  the  utmost  inquietude ; 
at  intervals  he  uttered  the  most  plaintive  cries  ;  at 
other  times,  with  his  eyes  fixed  upon  her,  he  pre- 
served a  sorrowful  silence.  His  faithful  companion 
at  length  expired :  he  languished  from  that  time,  and 
survived  her  only  a  few  months."* 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

HATCHING  AND  SHELTERING  OF  THE  YOUNG. 

IT  is  indispensable  to  hatching,  that  an  equable 
temperature  be  kept  up  of  about  96  degrees  Fahr. 
or  32  degrees  Reaum.,  for  at  lower  temperatures 
the  living  principle  appears  to  become  torpid,  and 
unable  to  assimilate  the  nourishment  provided  for 
developing  the  embryo.  Proceeding  upon  this 
principle,  the  Egyptians,  as  well  as  those  who  have 
tried  the  experiment  in  Europe,  have  succeeded,  by 
means  of  artificial  heat,  in  hatching  eggs  without 
any  aid  from  the  mother  birds. 

According  to  the  best  descriptions  of  the  Egyp- 
tian mamal,  or  hatching  oven,  it  is  a  brick  structure 
about  nine  feet  high.  The  middle  is  .formed  into  a 
gallery  about  three  feet  wide  and  eight  feet  high, 
extending  from  one  end  of  the  building  to  the  other. 
This  gallery  forms  the  entrance  to  the  oven,  and 
commands  its  whole  extent,  facilitating  the  various 
operations  indispensable  for  keeping  the  eggs  at 
the  proper  degree  of  warmth.  On  each  side  of  this 
gallery  there  is  a  double  row  of  rooms,  every  room 

*  Bingley,  Anim.  Biog.,  ii.,  224. 


PACTS    OBSERVED   IN    HATCHING.         151 

on  the  ground-floor  having  one  over  it  of  precisely 
the  same  dimensions,  namely,  three  feet  in  height, 
four  or  five  in  breadth,  and  twelve  or  fifteen  in 
length.  These  have  a  round  hole  for  an  entrance 
of  about  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter,  wide  enough 
for  a  man  to  creep  through,  and  into  each  are  put 
four  or  five  thousand  eggs.  The  number  of  rooms 
in  one  mamal  varies  from  three  to  twelve  ;  and  the 
building  is  adapted,  of  course,  for  hatching  from 
forty  to  eighty  thousand  eggs,  which  are  not  laid 
on  the  bare  brick  floor  of  the  oven,  but  upon  a  mat 
or  bed  of  flax,  or  other  nonconducting  material. 

In  each  of  the  upper  rooms  is  a  fireplace  for 
warming  the  lower  room,  the  heat  being  communi- 
cated through  a  large  hole  in  the  centre.  The  fire- 
place is  a  sort  of  gutter,  two  inches  deep  and  six 
wide,  on  the  edge  of  the  floor,  sometimes  all  round, 
but  for  the  most  part  only  on  two  of  its  sides.  As 
wood  or  charcoal  would  make  too  quick  a  fire,  they 
burn  the  dung  of  cows  or  camels,  mixed  with  straw, 
formed  into  cakes  and  dried.  The  doors  which 
open  into  the  gallery  serve  for  chimneys  to  let  out 
the  smoke,  which  finally  escapes  through  openings 
in  the  arch  of  the  gallery  itself.  The  fire  in  the 
gutters  is  only  kept  up,  according  to  some,  for  an 
hour  in  the  morning  and  an  hour  at  night,  which 
they  call  the  dinner  and  supper  of  the  chickens ; 
while  others  say  it  is  lighted  four  times  a  day. 
The  difference  probably  depends  on  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  weather.  When  the  smoke  of  the  fires 
has  subsidedpfhe  openings  into  the  gallery  from  the 
several  rooms  are  carefully  stuffed  with  bundles  of 
coarse  tow,  by  which  the  heat  is  more  effectually 
confined  than  it  could  be  by  a  wooden  door. 

When  the  fires  have  been  continued  for  an  in- 
definite number  of  days,  eight,  ten,  or  twelve,  ac- 
cording to  the  weather,  they  are  discontinued,  the 
heat  acquired  by  the  ovens  being  then  sufficient  to 
finish  the  hatching,  which  requires,  in  all,  twenty- 


152 


HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 


Transverse  section  and  elevation  of  an  Egyptian  Egg-oven. 

one  days,  the  same  time  as  when  eggs  are  naturally 
hatched  by  a  hen:  About  the  middle  of  this  period, 
a  number  of  the  eggs  in  the  lower  are  moved  into 
the  upper  rooms,  in  order  to  give  the  -embryos 
greater  facility  in  making  their  exit  from  the  shell 
than  they  would  have  if  a  number  of  eggs  were 
piled  up  above  them. 


Transverse  section  and  perspective  elevation  of  an  Egyptian 
Egg-oven. 

The  number  of  ovens  dispersed  in  the  several 
districts  of  Egypt  has  been  estimated  at  386 ;  and 
this  number  can  never  be  either  increased  or  di- 
minished without  the  circumstance  being  known, 
as  it  is  indispensable  for  each  mamal  to  be  managed 
by  a  Bermean,  none  of  whom  are  permitted  to 
practise  their  art  without  a  certified  license  from  the 
Aga  of  Berme,  who  receives  ten  crowns  for  each 


FACTS    OBSERVED  IN    HATCHING.          153 

license.  If,  then,  we  take  into  account  that  six  or 
eight  broods  are  annually  hatched  in  each  oven, 
and  that  each  brood  consists  of  from  40,000  to 
80,000,  we  may  conclude  that  the  gross  number  of 
chickens  which  are  every  year  hatched  in  Egypt 
amounts  to  nearly  100,000,000.  They  lay  their  ac- 
count with  losing  about  a  third  of  all  the  eggs  put 
into  the  ovens.  The  Bermean,  indeed,  guaranties 
only  two  thirds  of  the  eggs  with  which  he  is  in- 
trusted by  the  undertaker,  so  that  out  of  45,000 
eggs  he  is  obliged  to  return  no  more  than  30,000 
chickens.  If  he  succeeds  in  hatching  these,  the 
overplus  becomes  his  perquisite,  which  he  adds  to 
the  sum  of  thirty  or  forty  crowns,  besides  his 
board,  that  is  paid  him  for  his  six  months'  work. 

A  few  years  ago  an  individual  in  the  vicinity  of 
London  contrived  an  apparatus  for  hatching  by 
means  of  steam,  and  exhibited  it  in  the  Egyptian 
Hall,  Piccadilly ;  but  we  have  not  learned  that  he 
ever  carried  his  invention  so  far  as  to  make  a  trade 
of  the  chickens  which  he  hatched. 

The  importance  of  keeping  the  eggs  at  a  uniform 
temperature  is  beautifully  illustrated  by  the  care 
which  hens  may  be  observed  to  take  in  arranging 
the  eggs  they  are  hatching.  Among  other  curious 
facts  connected  with  this  subject,  is  that  of  a  hen 
throwing  out  or  eating  the  eggs  which  she  cannot 
conveniently  cover. 

We  had  brought  to  us  three  eggs  of  the  wood- 
wren  (Sylvia  sibilatrix,  BECHSTEIN),  and  being  anx- 
ious to  have  them  hatched,  we  introduced  them, 
after  warming  them  slightly,  into  the  nest  of  a  ca- 
nary, then  sitting  upon  four  eggs  of  her  own.  In 
the  course  of  the  day  two  of  her  own  eggs  had  dis- 
appearegl,  having,  we  inferred,  been  destroyed  by 
her  because  she  could  not  cover  the  seven  so  as 
to  keep  them  at  a  uniform  temperature,  the  three 
small  eggs  being  nearly  equal  in  size  to  the  two 
which  were  gone.  It  is  no  doubt  for  the  same 


154  HABITS    OF  BIRDS. 

reason  that  the  birds  in  whose  nest  the  cuckoo  para- 
sitically  deposites  her  egg,  often,  if  not  always,  turn 
out  or  destroy  their  own  to  make  room  for  hers. 

During  the  process  of  hatching,  the  mother-bird 
acts  as  if  she  knew  that,  by  keeping  the  eggs  all  in 
one  position,  some  would  be  more  favourably  treat- 
ed than  others. 

Sheltering  of  the  Young. — In  rearing  tender  song- 
birds taken  from  their  mothers,  as  is  frequently 
done,  before  they  are  fledged,  experience  proves  that 
warmth  is  no  less  indispensable  than  food ;  exposure 
to  cold  during  the  night  frequently  killing  the  most 
healthy  nestlings.  The  mother-birds,  well  aware 
of  this,  are  equally  assiduous  in  covering  their 
chicks  after  they  are  hatched  as  they  had  previously 
been  while  sitting  on  the  eggs.  Among  small  birds 
(Sylvicola,  VIEILLOT),  accordingly,  for  several  days 
after  her  brood  has  been  hatched,  the  mother  sel- 
dom quits  the  nest,  the  male  providing  the  food 
necessary  for  her  and  the  little  ones,  who  as  yet 
require  but  a  very  small  portion.  The  wren,  and 
other  birds  which  build  domed  nests,  have  this  ad- 
ditional protection  to  prevent  the  dissipation  of 
their  animal  heat ;  and  birds  of  prey,  pigeons,  and 
crows,  have  but  a  small  number  of  nestlings  to 
shelter. 

In  the  case  again  of  poultry,  when  the  newly- 
hatched  birds  can  run  about,  the  mothers  have  no 
little-  trouble  in  sheltering  them  from  the  cold,  and, 
even  during"  the  hottest  weather,  from  rain,  which 
proves  very  injurious  in  consequence  of  the  cold 
produced  by  its  evaporation.  However  much,  also, 
we  may  admire  the  ingenuity  of  birds  in  some 
things,  and  their  anxious  affection  for  their  young, 
yet  they  exhibit  in  other  instances  great  apparent 
stupidity ;  and  maternal  affection,  so  far  from  sharp- 
ening their  faculties,  seems  at  first  rather  to  blind 
them,  and  to  cause  them  to  injure  and  even  to  kill 
some  of  their  chickens  through  awkwardness  or  in- 


SHELTERING  OF  THE  YOUNG.     155 

consideration.  A  hen,  for  example,  out  of  over- 
anxiety  to  have  her  chickens  near  her,  will  not  un- 
frequently  set  her  foot  upon  some  of  them  so  as  to 
crush  or  mortally  injure  them  ;  and  the  same  acci- 
dent often  happens  by  her  sitting  over  them  with 
her  body  to  keep  them  warm.  Again,  in  scratching 
to  procure  them  food,  she  seems  quite  heedless 
where  she  strikes  with  her  foot ;  and  we  have  ob- 
served in  several  instances  that  she  kicked  the 
chickens  behind  her,  and  laid  them  sprawling  on  the 
ground.  But,  independently  of  such  accidents  as 
these,  no  hen,  whatever  may  be  her  care,  can  pre- 
vent her  brood  from  often  passing  through  sud- 
den changes  of  temperature.  She  neither  can  nor 
ought  to  sit  on  them  constantly,  as  they  must  eat 
and  run  about ;  and  in  cold  or  rainy  weather,  the 
damp  ground  must  prove  very  injurious,  even  when 
she  has  them  under  her  warm  wings.  Hence  it  is 
that  we  frequently  see  a  mother  not  able  to  rear 
above  three  or  four  out  of  a  dozen  or  more  that 
she  may  have  hatched. 

It  has  been  recorded  that  the  male  has  sometimes 
performed  all  these  duties  of  the  mother,  when  she 
has  been  accidentally  killed  or  has.  abandoned  her 
brood.  Aristotle  tells  us  that  he  witnessed  an  in- 
stance of  this  kind;*  and  Pliny  says,  "We  have 
heard  that  when  a  brood  hen  chanced  to  die,  the 
cocks  were  seen  to  go  about  with  the  chickens  one 
after  another  by  turns,  and  to  do  everything  like  to 
the  very  hen  that  hatched  them,  and  all  that  while 
to  forbear  once  to  crow."f  Albertus  Magnus  wit- 
nessed a  similar  case ;  and  ^EHan  even  mentions  a 
cock  which,  on  the  death  of  the  hen  while  hatch- 
ing, sat  on  the  eggs  and  brought  up  the  chicks.| 
Willoughby  says,  "  We  have  beheld  more  than  once, 
not  without  pleasure  and  admiration,  a  capon  bring- 

*  Hist.  Anim.,  ix.,  49.         t  Holland's  Transl.,  i.,  299. 
t  Hist.,  iv.,  29.    Apud  Aldrovandi,  ii.,  107. 


156  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

ing  up  ^>rood  of  chickens  like  a  hen,  clucking  of 
them,  f«ding  them,  and  brooding  them  under  his 
wings,  Tfith  as  much  care  and  tenderness  as  their 
dams  are  wont  to  do."*  This  leads  us  to  the  very 
curious  subject  of  training  capons  to  perform  the 
office  of  a  mother,  which  was  practised  as  early  as 
the  sixteenth  century. 

In  order  to  train  a  capon  for  this  purpose,  we  are 
instructed  by  Baptista  Porta,  in  his  curious  book  on 
Natural  Magic,  to  make  him  so  tame  that  he  will 
take  food  out  of  the  hand,  then  about  eventide  to 
pluck  the  feathers  off  his  breast,  to  irritate  the  bare 
skin  by  rubbing  it  with  nettles,  and  then  to  put  the 
chickens  to  him.  They  will  naturally  huddle  under 
him,  and,  by  rubbing  with  their  heads,  allay  the  itch- 
ing caused  by  the  nettles ;  and,  upon  repeating  this 
for  two  or  three  nights,  he  will  gradually  take  an 
affection  for  the  chickens,  and  attend  to  them  like  a 
mother.  The  author  thinks  it  may  probably  be  on 
the  principle  of  mutual  distress  producing  mutual 
sympathy,  that  the  querulous  chirp  of  the  chickens 
may  make  him,  whil'e  in  pain  himself,  desirous  of 
allaying  their  misery.  A  capon  once  accustomed  to 
this  office,  will  not  abandon  it,  but,  when  one  brood 
is  grown  up,  another  of  newly-hatched  chickens 
may  be  put  to  him,  and  he  will  be  as  kind  to  them, 
and  take  as  much  care  of  them,  as  of  the  first,  and 
so  in  succession. 

The  feeling  of  tenderness  for  the  young  broods 
of  other  birds,  in  whatever  way  it  may  be  supposed 
to  originate,  has  been  exemplified  in  several  very- 
striking  instances,  both  among  birds  and  other  ani- 
mals. "  In  the  month  of  May,"  says  M.  de  Buffon, 
"  a  young  henbird  was  brought  to  me  which  was 
not  able  to  feed  without  assistance.  I  caused  her 
to  be  educated ;  and  she  was  hardly  fledged  when 
I  received  from  another  place  a  nest  of  three  or 

*  Ray's  Willoughby,  p.  166. 


SHELTERING  OF  THE  YOUNG.      157 

four  unfledged  skylarks.  She  took  a  strong  liking 
to  these  new-comers,  which  were  scarcely  younger 
than  herself;  she  attended  them  night  and  day, 
cherished  them  beneath  her  wings,  and  fed  them 
with  her  bill.  Nothing  could  interrupt  her  tender 
offices.  If  the  young  ones  were  torn  from  her,  she 
flew  to  them  as  soon  as  she  was  liberated,  and 
would  not  think  of  effecting  her  own  escape,  which 
she  might  have  done  a  hundred  times.  Her  affec- 
tion grew  upon  her;  she  neglected  food  and  drink; 
she  now  required  the  same  support  as  her  adopted 
offspring;  and  expired  at  last,  consumed  with  ma- 
ternal anxiety.  None  of  the  young  ones  survived 
her.  They  died  one  after  another;  so  essential 
were  her  cares,  which  were  equally  tender  and 
judicious." 

But  in  the  case  of  artificial  hatching  by  means 
of  ovens,  it  must  frequently  be  found  impossible  to 
procure  a  sufficient  number  of  nurses  either  of  hens 
or  capons ;  and  in  that  case,  in  order  to  rear  the 
chickens  successfully,  artificial  methods  must  be 
continued.  Were  all  the  assiduities  indeed  of  the 
hen  required,  it  would  be  next  to  impossible  to  find 
an  artificial  substitute ;  but  as  her  chief  object  is  to 
procure  food  and  secure  warmth,  these,  with  a  little 
attention,  may  be  supplied  as  well,  or  even  better,  by 
art  than  by  the  most  assiduous  mother.  Reaumur, 
in  the  course  of  his  interesting  experiments,  tried 
several  plans  for  the  substitution  of  what  he  aptly 
denominates  an  artificial  mother. 

"  My  apparatus,"  he  says,  "  did  not  at  first  seem 
sufficiently  perfect ;  for,  though  the  chickens  were 
kept  in  warm  air,  they  had  no  equivalent  for  the 
gentle  pressure  of  the  belly  of  the  mother  upon 
their  backs  when  she  sits  over  them.  Their  back 
is,  in  fact,  necessarily  more  warmed  than  the  other 
parts  of  the  body  while  huddling  under  their  moth- 
er's wings ;  whereas  their  belly  often  rests  on  the 
cold,  moist  earth,  the  reverse  of  what  took  place  in 
O 


158  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

the  apparatus,  where  their  feet  were  the  best  warmed. 
The  chickens  themselves  indicated  that  they  were 
more  in  want  of  having  their  backs  warmed  than 
any  other  part  of  their  body ;  for,  after  all  of  them 
had  repaired  to  the  warmest  end  of  the  apparatus, 
instead  of  squatting  as  they  naturally  do  when  they 
rest,  they  remained  motionless,  standing  bolt  up- 
right upon  their  legs,  with  their  backs  turned  towards 
the  sides  or  end  of  the  apartment  in  order  to  pro- 
cure the  necessary  warmth.  I  therefore  judged 
that  they  wanted  an  apparatus  that  might,  by  rest- 
ing on  them,  determine  them  to  take  the  same  atti- 
tude as  they  naturally  assume  under  the  hens,  and 
I  contrived  an  inanimate  mother  that  might  supply, 
in  this  respect,  the  want  of  a  living  one." 

The  artificial  mother  contrived  upon  these  prin- 
ciples, consists  of  a  box  lined  with  sheepskin,  with 
the  wool  on  it,  the  bottom  being  of  a  square  form, 
and  the  upper  part  sloped  like  a  writing-desk.  This 
box  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  crib  or  cage,  shut  with 
a  grating  of  willow,  net,  or  wire,  and  closed  above 
with  a  hinged  lid,  the  whole  being  so  formed  that 
the  chickens  can  walk  round  the  sides.  The  slope 
of  the  cover  permits  the  chickens  to  arrange  them- 
selves according  to  their  sizes ;  but  as  it  is  their 
practice,  as  well  as  that  of  all  other  young  birds,  to 
press  very  closely  together,  and  even  to  climb  upon 
one  another,  the  small  and  the  weak  being  thereby 
in  danger  of  being  crushed  or  smothered,  Reaumur 
constructed  his  artificial  mother  open  at  both  ends, 
or,  at  most,  with  only  a  loose  netting  hanging  over 
it.  Through  this  the  weakest  chicken  can  escape 
when  it  feels  itself  too  much  squeezed,  and  then, 
by  going  round  to  the  other  opening,  it  may  find  a 
less  dangerous  neighbourhood.  The  ingenious  au- 
thor even  made  improvements  upon  this  contri- 
vance, one  of  which  consisted  in  keeping  the  coyer 
sloped  so  as  to  prevent  the  chickens  from  climbing 
on  each  other,  and  raising  it  as  they  increased  m 


SHELTERING    OF    THE    YOUNG. 


159 


Improved  Artificial  Mother. 

growth.  Another  was  the  dividing  the  large  cribs 
into  two  by  means  of  a  transverse  partition,  so  as 
to  separate  the  chickens  of  different  sizes. 

"  They  soon  showed  me,"  says  Reaumur,  "  how 
sensible  they  were  of  the  advantage  of  my  artificial 
mother,  by  their  delight  in  remaining  under  it  and 
pressing  it  very  close.  When  they  had  taken  their 
little  meals  they  jumped  and  capered  about,  and 
when  they  began  to  be  tired  they  repaired  to  this 
mother,  going  so  deep  into  it  that  they  were  com- 
pelled to  squat,  so  that,  when  the  roof  was  turned 
up,  I  perceived  the  impression  of  the  backs  of  sev- 
eral chickens  upon  the  fur  lining.  There  is,  indeed, 
no  natural  mother  that  can  be  so  good  for  the 
chickens  as  the  artificial  one,  and  they  are  not  long 
in  discovering  this,  instinct  being  a  quick  and  sure 
director.  Chickens,  direct  from  the  hatching  oven, 
from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  after  their  escape 
from  the  shell,  will  begin  to  pick  up  and  swallow 
.small  grains  or  crumbs  of  bread ;  and,  after  having 
eaten  and  walked  about  a  little,  they  soon  find  their 
way  to  the  fleecy  lodge,  where  they  can  rest  and 
warm  themselves,  remaining  till  hunger  puts  them 


160  HABITS   OF   BIRDS. 

again  in  motion.  They  all  betake  themselves  to 
the  artificial  mother  at  night,  and  leave  it  exactly  at 
daybreak,  or  when  a  lamp  is  brought  into  the  place, 
producing  an  artificial  daybreak,  with  which,  it  is 
worthy  of  remark,  old  hens  are  not  affected,  but  re- 
main immovable  on  their  roosts. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

FEEDING  AND  TRAINING  OF    THE  YOUNG. 

BIRDS  differ  essentially  from  quadrupeds  in  their 
mode  of  providing  food  for  their  young.  Among 
the  latter,  Providence  has  furnished  the  mother 
with  a  supply  of  food  for  her  offspring  within  her- 
self till  the  teeth  arrive  at  sufficient  growth  for 
manducation ;  and  hence  even  animals  of  prey  do 
not,  for  several  weeks,  bring  food  to  their  cubs,  but 
nourish  them  solely  with  milk.  Birds,  on  the  other 
hand,  have  to  provide  food  for  their  young  from  the 
second  day  after  they  are  hatched.  During  the  first 
day  they  have,  in  general,  sufficient  nutriment  in  the 
last  portions  of  the  yolk  of  the  egg,  which  they 
have  absorbed  through  the  umbilical  vessels. 

So  anxious  are  the  parent  birds  to  provide  food 
for  their  young,  that  several  of  them  exhibit,  during 
the  breeding  season,  more  omnivorous  propensities 
than  at  any  other.  We  may  indeed  occasionally 
see  a  chaffinch  (Fringilla  spiza]  or  a  green-bird  (F. 
chloris)  catch  a  fly  or  a  beetle,  but  never,  we  be- 
lieve, except  when  seeds  are  scarce.  On  the  con- 
trary, in  feeding  their  young,  insects  constitute  prob- 
ably their  sole  provision,  the  seeds  upon  which  the 
old  birds  live  being  too  indigestible  at  least  for  the 
unfledged  young.  In  the  same  way  some  of  the 


FEEDING  OF  THE  YOUNG.       161 

larger  birds,  which  are  at  all  times  omnivorous,  such 
as  the  magpie  (Pica  caudata,  RAY),  exhibit  more 
carnivorous  propensities  than  usual.  Speaking  of 
the  magpie,  Mr.  Knapp  says,  "  When  a  hatch  is  ef- 
fected, the  number  of  young  demand  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  food  than  is  easily  obtained,  and  whole 
broods  of  our  ducklings,  whenever  they  stray  from 
the  yard,  are  conveyed  to  the  nest."* 

The  same  delightful  writer  gives  an  account  of 
the  rearing  of  a  brood  of  tomtits,  which  shows  that 
smaller  birds  are  no  less  provident  with  regard  to 
the  quantity  of  food  furnished  to  their  young  than 
the  eagle  or  the  magpie.  "  I  was  lately,"  says  he, 
"  exceedingly  pleased  in  witnessing  the  maternal 
care  and  intelligence  of  this  bird  ;  for  the  poor  thing 
had  its  young  ones  in  the  hole  of  a  wall,  and  the 
nest  had  been  nearly  all  drawn  out  of  the  crevice 
by  the  paw  of  a  cat,  and  part  of  its  brood  devoured. 
In  revisiting  its  family,  the  bird  discovered  a  por- 
tion of  it  remaining,  though  wrapped  up  and  hidden 
in  the  tangled  moss  and  feathers  of  their  bed,  and 
it  then  drew  the  whole  of  the  nest  back  into  the 
place  from  whence  it  had  been  taken,  unrolled  and 
resettled  the  remaining  little  ones,  fed  them  with 
the  usual  attentions,  and  finally  succeeded  in  rear- 
ing them.  The  parents  of  even  this  reduced  fami- 
ly laboured  with  great  perseverance  to  supply  its 
wants,  one  or  the  other  of  them  bringing  a  grub, 
caterpillar,  or  some  insect,  at  intervals  of  less  than 
a  minute,  through  the  day,  and  probably  in  the  ear- 
lier part  of  the  morning  more  frequently  ;  but  if  we 
allow  that  they  brought  food  on  the  whole  every 
minute  for  fourteen  hours,  and  provided  for  their 
own  wants  also,  it  will  admit  of  perhaps  a  thou- 
sand grubs  a  day  for  the  requirements  of  one,  and 
that  a  diminished  brood ;  and  give  us  some  com- 
prehension of  the  infinite  number  requisite  for  the 

*  Journal  of  a  Naturalist,  p.  133,  third  edition. 


164  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

dens.  A  gentleman  who  was  at  the  trouble  of 
watching  these  birds,  observed  that  the  parents 
generally  went  from  the  nest  and  returned  with  in- 
sects from  forty  to  sixty  times  in  an  hour,  and  that 
in  one  particular  hour  they  carried  food  no  fewer 
than  seventy-one  times.  In  this  business  they 
were  engaged  during  the  greatest  part  of  the  day. 
Allowing  twelve  hours  to  be  thus  occupied,  a  sin- 
gle pair  of  these  birds  would  destroy  at  least  600 
insects  in  the  course  of  one  day,  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  the  two  birds  took  only  a  single  insect 
each  time.  But  it  is  highly  probable  that  they 
often  took  more."* 

Looking  at  the  matter  in  this  point  of  view,  the 
destruction  of  insectivorous  birds  has,  in  some  ca- 
ses, been  considered  as  productive  of  serious  mis- 
chief. 

From  its  sometimes  eatrng  grain  and  other  seeds, 
"  the  rook,"  says  Selby,  "  has  erroneously  been 
viewed  in  the  light  of  an  enemy  by  most  husband- 
men ;  and  in  several  districts  attempts  have  been 
made  either  to  banish  it  or  to  extirpate  the  breed. 
But  wherever  this  measure  has  been  carried  into  ef- 
fect, the  most  serious  injury  to  the  corn  and  other 
crops  has  invariably  followed,  from  the  unchecked 
devastations  of  the  grub  and  caterpillar.  As  ex- 
perience is  the  sure  test  of  utility,  a  change  of  con- 
duct has  in  consequence  been  partially  adopted; 
and  some  farmers  now  find  the  encouragement  of 
the  breed  of  rooks  to  be  greatly  to  their  interest, 
in  freeing  their  lands  from  the  grub  of  the  cock- 
chafer (Melolontha  vulgaris),  an  insect  very  abun- 
dant in  many  of  the  southern  counties.  In  Nor- 
thumberland I  have  witnessed  its  usefulness  in  feed- 
ing on  the  larvae  of  the  insect  commonly  known  by 
the  name  of  Harry  Longlegs  (Tipula  oleracea), 

*  Anim.  Biogr.,  ii.,  282,  6th  edit. 


FEEDING  OP  THE  YOUNG.       165 

which  is  particularly  destructive  to  the  roots  of 
grain  and  young  clovers."* 

It  has  on  similar  grounds  been  contended,  that 
•the  great  number  of  birds  caught  by  bird-catchers, 
particularly  in  the  vicinity  of  London,  has  been 
productive  of  much  injury  to  gardens  and  orchards. 

In  the  case  of  swallows,  it  has  been  well  re- 
marked by  an  excellent  naturalist,  that  they  are  to 
us  quite  inoffensive,  while  "  the  beneficial  services 
they  perform  for  us,  by  clearing  the  air  of  innumer- 
able insects,  ought  to  render  them  sacred  and  se- 
cure them  from  our  molestation.  Without  their 
friendly  aid,  the  atmosphere  we  live  in  would  scarce- 
ly be  habitable  by  man :  they  feed  entirely  on  in- 
sects, which,  if  not  kept  under  by  their  means, 
would  swarm  and  torment  us  like  another  Egyptian 
plague.  The  immense  quantity  of  flies  destroyed 
in  a  short  space  of  time  by  one  individual  bird  is 
scarcely  to  be  credited  by  those  who  have  not  had 
actual  experience  of  the  fact."  He  goes  on  to  il- 
lustrate this  from  a  swift  (Cypselus  mwran'ws,  TEM- 
MINCK)  which  was  shot-  "  It  was  in  the  breeding 
season  when  the  young  were  hatched;  at  which 
time  the  parent  birds,  it  is  well  known,  are  in  the 
habit  of  making  little  excursions  into  the  country 
to  a  considerable  distance  from  their  breeding-pla- 
ces, for  the  purpose  of  collecting  flies,  which  they 
bring  home  to  their  infant  progeny.  On  picking 
up  my  hapless  and  ill-gotten  prey,  I  observed  a 
number  of  flies,  some  mutilated,  others  scarcely 
injured,  crawling  out  of  the  bird's  mouth;  the 
throat  arid  pouch  seemed  absolutely  stuffed  with 
them,  and  an  incredible  number  was  at  length  dis- 
gorged. I  am  sure  I  speak  within  compass  when 
I  state  that  there  was  a  mass  of  flies,  just  caught 
by  this  single  swift,  larger  than,  when  pressed  close, 

*  Illustrations,  p.  73. 


166  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

could  conveniently  be  contained  in  the  bowl  of  an 
ordinary  tablespoon."* 

The  extraordinary  affection  exhibited  by  the  pa- 
rent birds  for  their  young  is  strikingly  exemplified 
in  the  instances  recorded  of  their  risking  their  own 
freedom  and  safety  by  venturing  into  houses  whith- 
er their  nestlings  have  been  carried.  We  once 
witnessed  an  instance  of  this  in  a  pair  of  gold- 
finches, who  were,  however,  enticed  by  hanging  the 
cage  containing  the  nestlings  upon  their  native  tree 
in  an  orchard,  from  which  it  was  gradually  removed 
to  the  outside  of  a  window,  and  afterward  taken  in- 
doors, whither  the  parent  goldfinches  followed,  and 
assiduously  supplied  their  young  with  food.  No 
attempt  was  made  to  catch  the  old  ones ;  yet  with 
all  their  anxiety  to  supply  the  young  with  food, 
they  took  care,  although  the  window  was  left  open 
for  them,  never  to  remain  in  the  room  during  the 
night,  roosting  always  in  an  adjacent  tree  in  the  or- 
chard. An  interesting  story  of  a  similar  kind  is 
told  by  Colonel  Montagu  respecting  the  gold-crest- 
ed wren  (Regulus  cristatus,  RAY). 

"  A  pair,"  says  he,  '*  of  these  birds,  who  took  pos- 
session of  a  fir-tree  in  my  garden,  ceased  their 
notes  as  soon  as  the  young  were  hatched ;  and  as 
this  beautiful  little  family  caused  me  much  delight 
and  amusement,  some  observations  thereon  may 
not  be  unacceptable  to  the  curious  reader.  When 
first  I  discovered  the  nest  1  thought  it  a  favourable 
opportunity  to  become  acquainted  with  some  of  the 
manners  of  this  minute  species,  and  to  endeavour 
to  discover  whether  the  male  ever  sung  by  way  of 
instructing  the  young  ones.  Accordingly,  I  took  the 
nest,  when  the  young  were  about  six  days  old, 
placed  it  in  a  small  basket,  and  by  degrees  enticed 
the  old  ones  to  my  study-window  ;  and  after  they 
became  familiar  with  that  situation,  the  basket  was 

*  Rev.  W.  T.  Bree,  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  iii.,  37. 


FEEDING  OF  THE  YOUNG.       167 

placed  within  the  window,  then  at  the  opposite  side 
of  the  room.  It  is  remarkable  that  although  the 
female  seemed  regardless  of  danger,  from  her  af- 
fection to  her  young,  the  male  never  once  ventured 
within  the  room,  and  yet  would  constantly  feed 
them  while  they  remained  at  the  outside  of  the 
window ;  on  the  contrary,  the  female  would  feed 
them  at  the  table  at  which  I  sat,  and  even  when  I 
held  the  nest  in  my  hand,  provided  I  remained  mo- 
tionless. But  on  moving  my  head  one  day,  while 
she  was  on  the  edge  of  the  nest,  which  I  held  in 
my  hand,  she  made  a  precipitate  retreat,  mistook 
the  open  part  of  the  window,  knocked  herself 
against  the  glass,  and  laid  [lay]  breathless  on  the 
floor  for  some  time.  It  is  probable  the  focal  dis- 
tance of  such  minute  animals'  eyes  is  very  near,  and 
that  large  objects  are  not  represented  perfect  on  the 
retina ;  that  they  do  not  seem  to  see  such  distinctly 
is  certain,  unless  in  motion.  However,  recovering 
a  little,  she  made  her  escape,  and  in  about  an  hour 
after  I  was  agreeably  surprised  by  her  return  ;  and 
she  would  afterward  frequently  feed  the  young 
while  I  held  the  nest  in  my  hand.  The  male  bird 
constantly  attended  the  female  in  her  flight  to  and 
fro,  but  never  ventured  beyond  the  window-frame, 
nor  did  he  latterly  ever  appear  with  food  in  his  bill. 
He  never  uttered  any  note  but  when  the  female  was 
out  of  sight,  and  then  only  a  small  chirp.  At  first 
there  were  ten  young  in  the  nest ;  but  probably,  for 
want  of  the  male's  assistance  in  procuring  food, 
two  died.  The  visits  of  the  female  were  generally 
repeated  in  the  space  of  a  minute  and  a  half  or  two 
minutes,  or,  upon  an  average,  thirty-six  times  in  an 
hour ;  and  this  continued  full  sixteen  hours  in  a 
day,  which,  if  equally  divided  between  the  eight 
young  ones,  each  would  receive  seventy-two  feeds 
in  the  day ;  the  whole  amounting  to  five  hundred 
and  seventy-six.  From  examination  of  the  food, 
which  by  accident  now  and  then  dropped  into  the 


168  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

nest,  I  judged  from  those  weighed  that  each  feed 
was  a  quarter  of  a  grain  upon  an  average ;  so  that 
each  young  one  was  supplied  with  eighteen  grains 
weight  in  a  day ;  and  as  the  young  ones  weighed 
about  seventy-seven  grains  at  the  time  they  began 
to  perch,  they  consumed  nearly  their  weight  of  food 
in  four  days'  time  at  that  time.  This  extraordinary 
consumption  seems  absolutely  requisite  in  animals 
of  such  rapid  growth.  The  old  birds  of  this  species 
weigh  from  eighty  to  ninety  grains.  I  could  always 
perceive,  by  the  animation  of  the  young  brood,  when 
the  old  one  was  coming  ;  probably  some  low  note 
indicated  her  approach,  and  in  an  instant  every 
mouth  was  open  to  receive  the  insect  morsel.  But 
there  appeared  no  regularity  in  the  supply  given  by 
the  parent  bird ;  sometimes  the  same  was  fed  two 
or  three  times  successively,  and  I  generally  ob- 
served that  the  strongest  got  most,  being  able  to 
reach  farthest,  the  old  one  delivering  it  to  the 
mouth  nearest  to  her." 

It  would  be  easy  for  us  to  extend  this  chapter  to 
a  much  greater  length  by  similar  anecdotes,  but 
we  shall  only  add  one  more  respecting  one  of  the 
humming-birds  (Trochilida),  mentioned  by  M.  La- 
bat,  premising  that  we  have  no  means  of  ascertain- 
ing the  particular  species  meant.  It  being  found 
extremely  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  breed  the 
young  humming-birds,  endeavours  have  been  made 
to  rear  them  by  taking  advantage  of  the  natural 
affection  of  the  parents  for  their  offspring.  Our 
author  records  an  instance  of  such  an  experiment : 
"  I  showed,"  says  he,  "  a  nest  of  humming-birds  to 
Father  Montdidier,  which  was  placed  on  a  shed 
near  the  house.  He  carried  it  off  with  the  young, 
when  they  were  about  fifteen  or  twenty  days  old, 
and  put  them  in  a  cage  at  his  room  window,  where 
the  cock  and  hen  continued  to  feed  them,  and  grew 
so  tame  that  they  scarcely  ever  left  the  room ;  and 
though  not  shut  in  the  cage,  nor  subjected  to  any 


TRAINING   OF   YOUNG   BIRDS.  169 

restraint,  they  used  to  eat  and  sleep  with  their 
brood.  I  have  often  seen  all  the  four  sitting  upon 
Father  Montdidier's  finger,  singing  as  if  they  had 
been  perched  upon  a  branch.  He  fed  them  with  a 
very  fine  and  almost  limpid  paste,  made  with  biscuit, 
Spanish  wine,  and  sugar.  They  dipped  their  tongue 
in  it,  and  when  their  appetite  was  satisfied  they 
fluttered  and  chanted.  1  never  saw  anything  more 
lovely  than  these  four  pretty  little  birds,  which  flew 
about  the  house  and  attended  the  call  of  their 
foster-father.  He  preserved  them  in  this  way  five 
or  six  months,  and  we  hoped  soon  to  see  them 
breed,  when  Father  Montdidier,  having  forgotten 
one  night  to  tie  the  cage  in  which  they  were  roost- 
ed by  a  cord  that  hung  from  the  ceiling,  to  keep 
them  from  the  rats,  had  the  vexation  in  the  morn- 
ing to  find  that  they  had  disappeared;  they  had 
been  devoured." 

Training  of  Young  Birds  by  their  Parents. — By 
far  the  greater  number  of  the  actions  of  animals 
appear  to  be  performed  without  previous  instruc- 
tion, in  a  manner  which,  being  inexplicable  in  the 
present  state  of  knowledge,  is  designated  by  the 
terms  instinct  and  instinctive,  meaning  that  the  mo- 
tives to  any  particular-movement  or  action,  as  well 
as  the  mode  of  execution,  originate  in  the  animal 
spontaneously,  without  the  series  of  reasoning,  or 
thinking  and  determining,  which  we  employ  in  sim- 
ilar cases.  Thus  a  frog  is  said  to  swim  instinctively 
in  water;  that  is,  it  requires  no  training,  no  in- 
struction in  the  art  of  swimming,  no  more  than  we 
do  in  the  process  of  breathing ;  and  the  same  may 
be  said  with  regard  to  the  swimming  of  most  other 
animals,  even  those  least  accustomed  to  water, 
few  being  unable  to  swim  except  man,  who  re- 
quires training  and  instruction  for  that  purpose. 
It  is  not  our  design  to  enter  here  upon  the  difficult 
subject  of  instinct  farther  than  to  point  out  a  few  of 
the  acquired  actions  of  birds,  originating  either  in 
P 


170  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

the  express  instruction  or  imitation  of  their  pa- 
rents. 

With  respect  to  the  eagle,  which  is  the  most  cel- 
ebrated from  the  remotest  antiquity  for  instructing 
its  young,  we  are  told  by  Moses  that  she  "  stirreth 
up  her  nest,  fluttereth  over  her  young,  spreadeth 
abroad  her  wings,  and  taketh  them  and  beareth 
them  on  her  wings."*  Aristotle  adds,  that  the 
young  are  not  permitted  to  leave  the  nest  prema- 
turely ;  and  if  they  make  the  attempt,  their  parents 
beat  them  with  their  wings  and  tear  them  with 
their  claws.  Be  this  as  it  may,  we  are  assured 
that  eagles  will  feed  their  young  for  a  considerable 
period,  if  the  latter  are  disabled  from  flying  by  clip- 
ping their  wings ;  and  it  is  recorded  that  a  country- 
man once  obtained  a  comfortable  subsistence  for 
his  family  out  of  an  eagle's  nest,  by  clipping  the 
wings  of  the  eaglets  and  tying  them  so  as  to  in- 
crease their  cries,  a  plan  which  was  found  to  stimu- 
late the  exertions  of  the  old  birds  in  bringing  prey 
to  the  nest.  It  was,  of  course,  necessary  for  him 
to  make  his  visits  when  the  old  birds  were  ab- 
sent, otherwise  he  might  have  been  made  to  pay 
dearly  for  his  plunder.  After  instructing  their 
young  in  flying  and  hunting,  .the  parent  eagles,  like 
other  birds  of  prey,  drive  them  from  their  territory, 
though  not,  we  believe,  as  Aristotle  says,  from  the 
nest.  Bonnet  says,  "  The  eagle  instructs  its  young 
in  flying,  but  does  not,  like  the  stork,  prolong  their 
education,  for  it  mercilessly  drives  them  away  be- 
fore they  are  thoroughly  taught,  and  forces  them  to 
provide  for  their  own  wants.  All  the  tyrants  of  the 
air  act  in  the  same  manner  ;  yet  though  this  seems 
cruel  and  shocking  when  we  consider  their  close 
relationship,  it  takes  a  different  aspect  when  we 
consider  the  kind  of  life  led  by  those  voracious 
birds.  Destined  to  subsist  by  rapine  and  carnage, 
they  would  soon  produce  a  famine  among  their 

*  Deuteronomy,  xxxii.,  11. 


TRAINING    OP  YOUNG    BIRDS.  171 

race  did  many  of  them  dwell  in  the  same  district. 
For  which  reason  they  hasten  to  drive  away  their 
young  at  a  certain  age  from  their  boundaries,  and 
then,  if  a  scarcity  of  provision  occur,  the  male  and 
female  put  one  another  to  death. 

Another  bird  celebrated  for  instructing  its  young 
is  the  stork.  When  the  wings  of  the  young  storks 
begin  to  grow,  they  are  said  to  try  their  strength  in 
fluttering  about  the  nest ;  though  it  often  happens 
that,  in  this  exercise,  some  of  them  fall  and  are  un- 
able to  regain  their  place.  When  they  first  ven- 
ture to  commit  themselves  to  the  air,  the  mother 
leads  them  in  small  circumvolutions  about  the  nest, 
whither  she  conducts  them  back,  and  about  the  end 
of  August,  the  young  ones  having  acquired  strength, 
unite  with  the  old  ones  for  the  purpose  of  migra- 
tion. "  When  the  young  storks,"  says  Bonnet,  as  if 
speaking  from  observation,  "  begin  to  try  their 
wings,  the  mother  fails  not  to  watch  over  and  con- 
duct them.  She  exercises  them  by  little  and  little 
in  short  flights  around  the  nest,  to  which  she  soon 
conducts  them  again.  She  continues  her  attention 
for  a  long  time,  and  does  not  abandon  them  till 
their  education  is  completed." 

We  are  disposed,  however,  to  look  upon  much 
that  has  been  written  respecting  parent  birds  in- 
structing their  young  as  merely  fanciful ;  and  wheth- 
er we  are  right  in  this  may  be  readily  verified  by 
observing  and  comparing  facts  of  daily  occurrence. 
In  the  case  of  a  brood  of  ducklings,  for  example,  it 
might  be  plausibly  alleged  that  their  parents  taught 
them  to  swim,  because  the  mother  may  be  seen 
swimming  before  them  as  their  leader,  and  the  little 
things  all  paddling  after  her,  according  to  their 
strength  or  their  agility.  But,  in  order  to  prove 
this  view  to  be  correct,  it  would  be  indispensable 
to  show  that  the  ducklings  could  not  swim  till 
they  were  instructed  by  their  mother,  which  clear- 
ly appears  not  to  be  the  case ;  for  a  duckling,  as 


172  HABITS    OP   BIRDS. 

soon  as  it  acquires  the  requisite  strength  of  foot, 
which  occurs  a  very  short  time  after  it  is  hatched, 
takes  to  the  water  and  swims  as  dexterously  as  its 
mother  herself  can  do.  Nay,  it  cannot  only  swim 
so  as  merely  to  keep  itself  afloat,  but  it  knows, 
without  any  instruction,  how  to  proportion  the  fre- 
quency and  force  of  the  strokes  of  either  foot  so  as 
to  carry  it  to  any  part  of  the  pond  it  chooses,  as  ac- 
curately as  if  it  were  profoundly  acquainted  with 
the  mathematical  problems  of  the  composition  and 
resolution  of  forces.  No  instruction  nor  imitation 
of  the  parent  will  account  for  this,  inasmuch  as 
ducklings  hatched  in  an  oven  will  take  to  the  water 
as  readily  as  those  tended  by  a  female  duck ;  and,  in 
the  common  occurrence  of  their  being  hatched  un- 
der a  hen,  they  will  swim  away  and  leave  their  fos- 
ter-mother on  the  bank  of  the  pond  in  utter  despair 
for  their  safety.  This  proves  not  only  that  they 
can  swim  without  instruction,  but  in  opposition  to 
the  most  earnest  solicitude  of  their  sole  instruct- 
ress. We  have  witnessed  a  similar  case,  no  less 
in  point,  in  a  brood  of  turkeys  hatched  by  a  goose, 
which  their  foster-mother,  as  was  natural,  was  de- 
sirous of  leading  into  the  water,  but  this  they  re- 
fused as  obstinately  as  ducklings  do  to  quit  the  wa- 
ter when  recalled  by  a  hen. 

We  think  it  highly  probable  that  the  instances  of 
the  eagle  and  the  stork  above  quoted,  admit  of  a 
similar  solution  into  instinctive  motives  independent 
of  instruction.  Even  the  case  of  the  hen,  who  leads 
her  chickens  so  assiduously  to  where  they  may 
find  food,  though  it  appears  to  be  more  like  instruc- 
tion than  the  instances  of  the  eagle  and  the  stork,  is 
far  from  being  conclusive ;  for  chickens  which  are 
hatched  artificially  seem  to  be  at  no  loss  in  learn- 
ing to  feed,  though  they  have  no  mother ;  and  ducks 
hatched  under  a  hen  will  take  the  water  in  spite  of 
her  most  anxious  warnings. 

The  swallows  and  sparrows,  which,  from  building 


TRAINING    OF    YOUNG    BIRDS.  173 

in  our  houses,  are  more  under  common  observation 
than  most  wild  birds,  may  readily  be  fancied  to  be 
seen  instructing  their  young  to  fly.  The  whole 
family  may  have  got  out  of  the  nest  and  have 
perched  on  the  tiles,  on  a  window-ledge,  or  on  the 
projecting  bricks  of  a  neighbouring  chimney,  bask- 
ing themselves  in  the  sunshine,  and  enjoying  the 
freshness  of  the  summer  air ;  and  the  parents,  in 
their  exuberance  of  joy  at  having  reared  their  young 
ones  so  far  without  accident,  may  be  seen  flitting 
about  from  one  to  another,  and  sometimes  making 
short  excursions  to  the  nearest  tree,  as  if  to  survey 
their  young  from  a  different  point  of  view,  chuck- 
ling all  the  while  with  buoyant  delight,  in  tones 
which  many  observers  would  not  hesitate  to  inter- 
pret as  invitations  to  the  little  things  to  try  their 
wings.  We  are  more  inclined,  however,  to  con- 
sider" the  conduct  of  the  parent  birds  on  such  occa- 
sions as  simply  expressive  of  pleasurable  feeling ; 
and  if  an  anxious  movement  or  the  tremulous  tone 
of  fear  be  heard  to  intermingle,  it  may  usually,  we 
think,  be  traced  to  the  attempts  made  by  the  young 
birds  to  fly,  the  old  ones  naturally  anticipating  the 
possibility  of  danger,  from  the  known  weakness  of 
wing,  as  well  as  the  inexperience  of  the  young  ones, 
placed,  as  they  usually  are  in  such  cases,  at  a  con- 
siderable height. 

In  the  instance  of  impending  danger  or  on  the 
approach  of  an  enemy,  the  parent  birds  eagerly  ex- 
press their  feelings  of  solicitude,  though  it  is  ques- 
tionable, we  think,  whether  the  cries  they  utter  are 
meant  or  understood  by  the  young  as  invitations  to 
fly  to  a  place  of  greater  security.  We  have  in  this 
way  observed,  in  the  case  of  a  brood  of  young  gold- 
finches (CarduSlis  elegans,  STEPHENS),  perched  on 
an  apple-tree  and  chirruping  in  chorus,  that,  when 
the  watchful  parents  warned  them  of  our  approach, 
they  did  not  fly  towards  them  for  protection,  but 
instantly  ceased  to  chirrup,  squatting  close  to  the 
P2 


174  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

branches  where  they  were  sitting.  Yet  we  can  im- 
agine, and  have  seen,  cases  in  which  young  birds, 
being  in  confinement  or  in  danger,  have  been  soli- 
cited to  shift  their  quarters  with  all  the  varied  tones 
and  movements  of  invitation,  which  are,  in  fact, 
identical  with  the  tones  used  in  feeding,  and,  to  all 
appearance,  instinctively  understood.  It  is  thus  we 
would  explain  the  following  interesting  narrative, 
which  proves  that,  had  the  author  had  opportunities 
for  observation,  he  might  have  accomplished  some- 
thing much  superior  to  his  very  imperfect  though 
well-planned  compilation. 

"  When  I  was  a  boy,"  says  Smellie,  "  I  carried 
off  a  nest  of  young  sparrows,  about  a  mile  from  my 
place  of  residence.  After  the  nest  was  completely 
removed,  and  while  I  was  marching  home  with 
them  in  triumph,  I  perceived,  with  some  degree  of 
astonishment,  both  the  parents  following  me  at 
some  distance,  and  observing  my  motions  in  per- 
fect silence.  A  thought  then  struck  me  that  they 
might  follow  me  home,  and  feed  the  young  accord- 
ing to  their  usual  manner.  When  just  entering  the 
door,  I  held  up  the  nest,  and  made  the  young  ones 
utter  the  cry  expressive  of  the  desire  of  food.  I 
immediately  put  the  nest  and  the  young  in  the  cor- 
ner of  a  wire  cage,  and  placed  it  on  the  outside  of 
a  window.  I  chose  a  situation  in  the  room  where 
I  could  perceive  all  that  should  happen  without  be- 
ing myself  seen.  The  young  animals  soon  cried  for 
food.  In  a  short  time  both  parents,  having  their  bills 
filled  with  small  caterpillars,  came  to  the  cage ;  and 
after  chatting  a  little,  as  we  do  with  a  friend  through 
the  lattice  of  a  prison,  gave  a  small  worm  to  each. 
This  parental  intercourse  continued  regularly  for 
some  time,  till  the  young  ones  were  completely 
fledged,  and  had  acquired  a  considerable  degree  of 
strength.  I  then  took  one  of  the  strongest  of  them 
and  placed  him  on  the  outside  of  the  cage,  in  order 
to  observe  the  conduct  of  the  parents  after  one  of 


TRAINING   OF   YOUNG   BIRDS.  175 

their  offspring  was  emancipated.  In  a  few  minutes 
both  parents  arrived,  loaded,  as  usual,  with  food. 
They  no  sooner  perceived  that  one  of  their  chil- 
dren had  escaped  from  prison,  than  they  fluttered 
ahout  and  made  a  thousand  demonstrations  of  joy, 
both  with  their  wings  and  with  their  voices.  These 
tumultuous  expressions  of  unexpected  happiness  at 
last  gave  place  to  a  more  calm  and  soothing  con- 
versation. By  their  voices  and  their  movements  it 
was  evident  that  they  earnestly  entreated  him  to 
follow  them,  and  to  fly  from  his  present  dangerous 
state.  He  seemed  to  be  impatient  to  obey  their 
mandates ;  but,  by  his  gestures  and  the  feeble 
sounds  he  uttered,  he  plainly  expressed  that  he  was 
afraid  to  try  an  exertion  he  had  never  before  at- 
tempted. They,  however,  incessantly  repeated 
their  solicitations ;  by  flying  alternately  from  the 
cage  to  a  neighbouring  chimney- top,  they  endeav- 
oured to  show  him  how  easily  the  journey  was  to 
be  accomplished.  He  at  last  committed  himself 
to  the  air,  and  alighted  in  safety.  On  his  arrival, 
another  scene  of  clamorous  and  active  joy  was  ex- 
hibited. Next  day  I  repeated  the  same  experiment, 
by  exposing  another  of  the  young  ones  on  the  top 
of  the  cage.  I  observed  the  same  conduct  with  the 
remainder  of  the  brood,  which  consisted  of  four.  I 
need  hardly  add,  that  not  one,  either  of  the  parents 
or  children,  ever  afterward  revisited  the  execrated 
cage.'1* 

It  does  not  appear  to  us  that,  in  the  instance  of 
carnivorous  birds,  the  bringing  of  live  prey  to  the 
young,  and  of  inviting  them  to  kill  and  devour  it,  is 
capable  of  being  interpreted,  as  it  usually  has  been, 
as  an  instance  of  training  them  to  hunt.  We  have 
seen  a  kitten  brought  up  by  hand  from  the  day  it 
could  see,  and,  of  course,  before  the  mother  had 
any  opportunity  of  instructing  it  to  mouse,  exhibit 

*  Philosophy  of  Natural  History. 


176  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

all  the  cunning  devices  of  a  practised  veteran  in 
lying  in  wait  for  a  mouse,  which  it  succeeded  in 
capturing,  though,  so  far  as  we  were  aware,  it  had 
never  before  seen  a  mouse ;  and  we  have  not  a 
doubt,  though  we  never  witnessed  an  instance,  that 
a  young  hawk  would  pounce  upon  the  first  live  bird 
presented  to  it,  independently  of  all  experience  and 
instruction. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

LANGUAGE    OP    BIRDS. 

BY  the  term  language,  in  reference  to  birds,  we 
mean  sounds  which  can  be  mutually  understood,  ex- 
cluding the  words  and  phrases  which  parrots  and 
starlings  may  be  taught  by  imitation,  but  to  which 
the  birds  that  repeat  them  can  attach  no  meaning. 
An  example  will  best  illustrate  this,  and  we  do  not 
recollect  one  more  apposite  than  a  circumstance 
mentioned  by  Wilson  when  speaking  of  the  richel 
bird  (Sterna  minuta).  "I  lately,"  he  says,  "visited 
those  parts  of  the  beach  on  Cape  May  where  this 
little  bird  breeds.  During  my  whole  stay,  these 
birds  flew  in  crowds  around  me,  and  often  within  a 
few  yards  of  my  head,  squeaking  like  so  many 
young  pigs,  which  noise  their  voice  strikingly  re- 
sembles. A  humming-bird,  that  had  accidentally 
strayed  to  the  place,  appeared  suddenly  among  this 
outrageous  troop,  several  of  whom  darted  angrily 
at  him ;  but  he  shot  like  an  arrow  from  them,  di- 
recting his  flight  straight  towards  the  ocean.  I 
have  no  doubt  but  the  distressing  cries  of  the  terus 
had  drawn  this  little  creature  to  the  scene,  having 
frequently  witnessed  his  anxious  curiosity  on  simi- 


LANGUAGE.  177 

lar  occasions  in  the  woods."*  The  humming-bird, 
indeed,  is  not  alone  in  the  exhibition  of  curiosity  to 
see  what  is  going  forward  when  other  birds  are  vo- 
ciferous. We  recollect  having  our  attention  once 
drawn  to  the  loud  scolding  of  a  pair  of  chaffinches 
in  a  copse,  a  circumstance  of  very  frequent  occur- 
rence during  summer,  but  rendered  peculiar  in  the 
instance  in  question  by  the  birds  darting  down  al- 
most to  the  roots  of  the  bushes  at  some  distance 
from  where  we  stood,  from  which  we  concluded 
their  scolding  was  not  directed  to  us.  The  loud 
pink,  pink,  of  the  chaffinches  soon  attracted  to  the 
spot  a  crowd  of  their  woodland  neighbours,  among 
whom  a  redbreast  took  the  lead,  followed  by  a 
greenbird,  a  songthrush,  and  about  a  dozen  of  the 
small  summer  birds  (Sylviada),  all  brought  to- 
gether by  curiosity  to  learn  what  the  chaffinches 
were  scolding  about.  From  all  of  these  curiosity- 
hunters  giving  vent  to  the  same  expression  of  feel- 
ing, we  concluded  that  some  common  enemy  had 
made  his  appearance  among  them  ;  and  upon  look- 
ing narrowly  into  the  bushes  we  perceived  a  pine 
martin  (Maries  abietum,  RAY)  stealing  along,  occa- 
sionally throwing  a  sly,  or.  rather,  contemptuous 
look  at  his  vociferous  railers,  but  otherwise  contin- 
uing a  careful  prying  search  into  every  hole  and 
bush  for  a  nest  of  eggs  or  young,  of  which  he  might 
make  a  breakfast. 

It  appears,  however,  to  be  a  shrewd  and  correct 
observation  of  Mr.  Knapp,  that  the  voice  of  one 
species  of  birds,  except  in  particular  cases,  is  not 
attended  to  by  another  species ;  and  he  instances 
the  peculiar  call  of  the  female  cuckoo,  which  resem- 
bles so  many  contending  rivals,  but  excites  no  at- 
tention generally,  inasmuch  as  the  dialect  seems  to 
be  unknown  to  all  but  its  own  species.  He  adds, 
"  I  know  but  one  note  which  animals  make  use  of 

*  Wilson,  Am.  Ornith.,  vii.,  85. 


178  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

that  seems  of  universal  comprehension,  and  this  is 
the  signal  of  danger :  the  instant  it  is  uttered,  we 
hear  the  whole  flock,  though  composed  of  various 
species,  repeat  a  separate  moan,  and  away  they  all 
scuttle  into  the  bushes  for  safety."* 

The  latter  circumstance,  however,  is  contrary  to 
all  that  we  have  ever  observed ;  for,  instead  of  fly- 
ing or  hiding  from  danger,  the  alarm-call  seems  to 
imbolden  even  the  most  timid  to  run  every  hazard ; 
and,  accordingly,  it  is  matter  of  common  observa- 
tion, that  whenever  a  hawk  makes  his  appearance, 
the  first  swallow  which  descries  him  sounds  the 
tocsin,  when  not  only  all  the  swallows  in  the  vicin- 
ity muster  their  forces,  but  many  other  small  birds 
hurry  to  the  spot,  and,  so  far  from  skulking  away 
out  of  danger,  they  boldly  face  their  powerful  foe, 
attacking  him  fearlessly  with  beak  and  wing,  till 
some  individual  pays  the  penalty  of  his  temerity. 
With  this  exception  we  can  bear  testimony  to  the 
description  of  Mr.  Knapp  being  minutely  correct. 
"  Some,"  he  adds,  "  give  the  maternal  hush  to  their 
young,  and  mount  to  inquire  into  the  jeopardy  an- 
nounced. The  wren,  that  tells  of  perils  from  the 
hedge,  soon  collects  about  her  all  the  various  in- 
quisitive species  within  hearing  to  survey  and  as- 
certain the  object  and  add  their  separate  fears. 
The  swallow,  that,  shrieking,  darts  in  devious  flight 
through  the  air  when  a  hawk  appears,  not  only  calls 
up  all  the  hirundines  of  the  village,  but  is  instantly 
understood  by  every  finch  and  sparrow,  and  its 
warning  attended  to."f 

Dr.  Darwin,  in  his  usual  ingenious  but  fanciful 
manner,  endeavours  to  show  that  this  language  of 
fear  and  alarm  is  (like  other  sounds  usually  con- 
sidered natural)  acquired  and  conventional  like  hu- 
man speech.  His  facts  will  amuse  the  reader,  while 
his  inferences  must  appear  quite  hypothetical  and 

*  Journal  of  a  Naturalist  p.  268,  third  edit.        f  Ibid, 


LANGUAGE.  179 

strained.  "  All  other  animals,"  he  says,  "  as  well 
as  man,  are  possessed  of  the  natural  language  of 
the  passions,  expressed  in  signs  or  tones ;  and  we 
shall  endeavour  to  evince  that  those  animals  which 
have  preserved  themselves  from  being  enslaved  by 
mankind,  and  are  associated  in  flocks,  are  also  pos- 
sessed of  some  artificial  language  and  of  some  tra- 
ditional knowledge. 

"  The  mother-turkey,  when  she  eyes  a  kite  hover- 
ing high  in  air,  has  either  seen  her  own  parents 
thrown  into  fear  at  his  presence,  or  has  by  observa- 
tion been  acquainted  with  his  dangerous  designs 
upon  her  young.  She  becomes  agitated  with  fear, 
and  uses  the  natural  language  of  that  passion ;  her 
young  ones  catch  the  fear  by  imitation,  and  in  an 
instant  conceal  themselves  in  the  grass. 

"  At  the  same  time  that  she  shows  her  fears  by 
her  gesture  and  deportment,  she  uses  a  certain  ex- 
clamation, Koe-ut,  Koe-ut,  and  the  young  ones  after- 
ward know  that  the  presence  of  their  adversary  is 
denounced,  and  hideHhemselves  as  before. 

"  The  wild  tribes  of  birds  have  very  frequent  op- 
portunities of  knowing  their  enemies  by  observing 
the  destruction  they  make  among  their  progeny,  of 
which  every  year  but  a  small  part  escapes  to  ma- 
turity ;  but  to  our  domestic  birds  these  opportuni- 
ties so  rarely  occur,  that  their  knowledge  of  their 
distant  enemies  must  frequently  be  delivered  by  tra- 
dition in  the  manner  above  explained,  through  many 
generations. 

"  This  note  of  danger,  as  well  as  the  other  notes 
of  the  mother-turkey,  when  she  calls  her  flock  to 
their  food  or  to  sleep  under  her  wings,  appears  to 
be  an  artificial  language,  both  as  expressed  by  the 
mother  and  as  understood  by  the  progeny.  For  a 
hen  teaches  this  language  with  equal  ease  to  the 
ducklings  she  has  hatched  from  supposititious  eggs, 
and  educates  as  her  own  offspring ;  and  the  wag- 
tails or  hedge-sparrows  learn  it  from  the  young 


180  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

cuckoo,  their  foster  nursling,  and  supply  him  with 
food  long  after  he  can  fly  about,  whenever  they  hear 
his  cuckooing,  which  Linnaeus  tells  us  is  his  call  of 
hunger.*  And  all  our  domestic  animals  are  readily 
taught  to  come  to  us  for  food  when  we  use  one 
tone  of  voice,  and  to  fly  from  our  anger  when  we 
use  another." 

Those  who  have  attended  minutely  to  the  lan- 
guage of  fear,  alarm,  or  defiance  among  birds,  can- 
not fail  to  have  remarked  the  considerable  variety 
both  of  notes  and  intonation  in  the  same  species. 
Thus,  as  White  of  Selborne  remarks,  "  when  the 
hen  turkey  leads  forth  her  young  brood,  she  keeps 
a  watchful  eye,  and  if  a  bird  of  prey  appear,  though 
ever  so  high  in  the  air,  the  careful  mother  announ- 
ces the  enemy  with  a  little  inward  moan,  and  watch- 
es him  with  a  steady  and  attentive  look ;  but,  if  he 
approach,  her  note  becomes  earnest  and  alarming, 
and  her  outcries  are  redoubled."!  In  the  instance 
of  a  male  bird  expressing  fear  or  giving  an  alarm 
to  the  hen  of  the  approach  of  danger  near  the  nest, 
the  tones  seem  to  be  varied  so  as  to  give  her  due 
notice  either  to  keep  close  and  still,  or  to  make  her 
escape  with  as  much  caution  as  she  can.  "  This 
note,"  observes  Mr.  Syme,  "  is  only  comprehended 
by  birds  of  the  same  species,  though  we  have  cer- 
tainly seen  birds  of  different  genera  appear  as  if 
alarmed  by  this  note  of  fear  sounded  by  a  bird  of  a 
different  species  or  genus ;  but  whether  it  was  the 
note  that  alarmed  them  or  our  presence,  we  can- 
not say.  But  we  are  pretty  sure  the  notes  of  parent 
birds  and  the  chirp  of  their  young  are  only  under- 
stood by  birds  of  the  same  species,  or,  rather,  we 
should  say,  same  family,  for  it  appears  to  be  a  fami- 
ly language,  understood  reciprocally  by  parent  birds 
and  their  young :  for  the  young  know  the  notes  of 
the  parents,  and  the  parents  those  of  their  own 

*  Syst.  Nat  t  Letter  65. 


LANGUAGE.  181 

brood,  among  all  the  young  broods  of  other  birds 
of  the  same  species  in  the  neighbourhood  ;  and  this 
they  do  as  distinctly  as  the  ewe  knows  the  bleat  of 
her  own  lamb,  or  the  lamb  the  cry  of  its  own  moth- 
er, among  a  large  flock.  With  regard  to  the  note 
of  alarm  birds  send  forth  on  the  approach  of  their 
natural  enemies,  whether  a  hawk,  an  owl,  or  a  cat, 
we  consider  it  to  be  a  general  language  perfectly 
understood  by  all  small  birds,  though  each  species 
has  a  note  peculiar  to  itself.  This  note  differs  in 
sound  from  the  note  of  fear  or  alarm  given  by  them 
when  man  approaches  near  their  nests.  This  last 
seems  confined  to  particular  species  :  but  this  gen- 
eral alarm  note  (which  is  understood  by  all  small 
birds),  we  should  call  their  war-whoop  or  gathering 
cry,  for  it  is  a  true  natural  slogan."* 

The  noisy  cackle  of  jays,  the  cawing  of  rooks, 
and  the  incessant  yelp  of  sparrows,  appear,  so  far 
as  we  can  judge,  to  be  partly  so  many  social  signals 
for  congregating  in  a  particular  place,  and  to  be 
continued  after  the  flock  has  assembled,  either  to 
warn  stragglers  to  what  point  they  ought  to  wing 
their  way,  or,  in  the  spirit  of  rivalry  which  prevails 
so  extensively  among  birds,  with  the  object  of  out- 
vying each  other  in  loudness  of  tone.  It  is  remark- 
able, indeed,  that  most,  if  not  all  gregarious  birds 
are  thus  noisy,  and  differ  much  in  this  respect  from, 
solitary  or  sub-solitary  birds.  If  a  rook  or  a  sea- 
gull, therefore,  is  by  accident  separated  from  its 
companions,  it  will  keep  up  an  incessant  vociferous 
call,  till  a  response  is  returned  either  from  some 
other  straggler  or  from  the  colony  to  which  it  be- 
longs. The  necessity  of  such  a  habit  as  this  is  still 
more  obvious  in  the  case  of  those  birds  which  mi- 
grate together  at  night.  "  Aquatic  and  gregarious 
birds,"  says  White,  "  especially  the  nocturnal,  that 
shift  their  quarters  in  the  dark,  are  very  noisy  and 

*  Brit.  Song  Birds,  Intr.,  p.  31. 

Q 


182  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

loquacious ;  as  cranes,  wild  geese,  wild  ducks,  and 
the  like  ;  their  perpetual  clamour  prevents  them 
from  dispersing  and  losing  their  companions ;"  and 
accordingly,  when  residing  near  the  sea  or  a  large 
river,  we  have  often  heard  the  scream  of  these  night- 
fliers  "  startle  the  dull  ear  of  night." 

There  appears,  however,  to  be  a  decided  and  well- 
understood  distinction  between  the  call  of  such 
stragglers  as  we  have  just  alluded  to,  and  the  gath- 
ering-cry when  an  individual  has  discovered  abun- 
dance of  food.  A  seamew,  or,  what  is  more  com- 
mon, a  pair  of  seamews,  may  thus  be  seen  far  in- 
land, whither  they  have  probably  been  driven  by 
blowing'  weather,  coursing  about  high  in  the  air, 
sometimes  flying  in  one  direction,  and  sometimes 
tacking  about,  and  all  the  while  uttering  at  intervals 
a  peculiar  callnote;  but,  even  should  this  occur 
near  the  beach,  no  other  seamew  would  think  of 
coming  at  the  signal.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
note  of  intimation  proceeding  from  an  individual 
who  has  discovered  a  good  fishing-station  over  a 
sandbank,  is  so  well  understood  and  so  quickly 
obeyed,  that  we  have  repeatedly  seen  some  hun- 
dreds of  birds  hurry  to  the  place  in  a  few  minutes, 
though  none  were  previously  observable. 

There  are  instances,  however,  of  birds  thus  call- 
ing when  on  the  wing,  which  it  does  not  seem  so 
natural  to  account  for  on  either  of  these  supposi- 
tions. We  may  mention  the  shrill,  harsh  scream  of 
the  kingfisher  and  of  the  dipper  ( Cinclus  aguaticus, 
BECHSTEIN),  which,  so  far  as  ouriobservation  goes,  is 
repeated  every  time  these  birds  take  wing.  It  may, 
perhaps,  as  they  are  almost  always  seen  in  pairs, 
be  meant  as  a  signal-note  to  the  mate,  an  explana- 
tion rendered  more  probable  by  the  rapidity  of  their 
flight,  which  carries  them  in  an  instant  to  a  great 
distance  along  the  stream,  so  that  without  some  such 
watchcall  they  might  soon  be  separated.  This  call 
is  not  unlike  the  sound  of  a  stick  drawn  rapidly 


LANGUAGE.  183 

across  the  uprights  of  an  iron  railing,  and  comes  on 
the  ear  so  quick  and  transient  that  it  is  impossible 
to  catch  a  view  of  the  bird  by  trying  to  follow  the 
sound. 

It  is  ingeniously,  and,  as  we  think,  correctly  re- 
marked by  Mr.  Knapp,  that,  "  as  Nature  in  all  her 
ordinations  had  a  fixed  design  and  foreknowledge, 
it  may  be  that  each  species  had  a  separate  voice 
assigned  it,  that  each  might  continue  as  created, 
distinct  and  unmixed;  and  the  very  few  deviations 
and  admixtures  that  have  taken  place,  considering 
the  lapse  of  time,  association,  and  opportunity, 
united  with  the  prohibition  of  continuing  accidental 
deviations,  are  very  remarkable,  and  indicate  a  cause 
and  original  motive.  That  some  of  the  notes  of 
birds  are  a  language  designed  to  convey  a  meaning, 
is  obvious  from  the  very  different  sounds  uttered  by 
these  creatures  at  particular  periods  ;  the  spring 
voices  become  changed  as  summer  advances,  and 
the  requirements  of  the  early  season  have  ceased  : 
the  summer  excitements,  monitions,  informations, 
are  not  needed  in  autumn,  and  the  notes  conveying 
such  intelligence  are  no  longer  heard.  The  period- 
ical calls  of  animals,  croaking  of  frogs,  &c.,  afford 
the  same  reason  for  concluding  that  the  sound  of 
their  voices,  by  elevation,  depression,  or  modula- 
tion, conveys  intelligence  equivalent  to  an  uttered 
sentence.  The  voices  of  birds  seem  applicable, 
in  most  instances,  to  the  immediate  necessities  of 
their  condition ;  such  as  the  sexual  call,  the  invita- 
tion to  unite  when  dispersed,  the  moan  of  danger, 
the  shriek  of  alarm,  the  notice  of  food."* 
'  It  was,  no  doubt,  from  such  views  as  these,  that 
the  notion  originated  of  birds  being  possessed  of  a 
language,  and  of  a  knowledge  of  it  having  been  ob- 
tained by  certain  individuals.  The  faculty  of  inter- 
preting the  language  of  birds  is  attributed,  in  classic 

*  Journal  of  a  Naturalist,  p.  209,  3d  edit. 


184  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

fable,  to  various  of  the  ancient  diviners.  Apollo- 
dorus,  in  his  Bibliotheca,  relates  of  Melampus,  that 
he  acquired  this  gift  by  having  had  his  ears  licked 
by  serpents ;  and  that  one  of  the  ways  by  which 
he  chiefly  gained  a  knowledge  of  futurity,  was  by 
listening  to  what  he  heard  uttered  by  the  birds  as 
they  flew  over  his  head.  Porphyry,  in  his  book  on 
abstinence  from  animal  food,  refers  to  Empedocles, 
Plato,  and  Aristotle,  in  support  of  the  opinion 
that  all  the  inferior  animals  are  possessed  both 
of  reason  and  language  ;  and,  in  addition  to  Melam- 
pus, he  mentions  Tiresias,  Thales,  and  Apollonius 
of  Tyanae,  as  having  been  able  to  interpret  what 
they  said.  This  is  affirmed  to  have  been  one  of 
the  gifts  bestowed  upon  Tiresias,  in  compensation 
for  his  blindness,  by  Minerva.  Some  of  the  Jewish 
rabbis  have  attributed  a  similar  power  to  King 
Solomon.  Even  as  late  as  the  seventeenth  century 
we  find  the  Irish  monk,  Bonaventure  Baron,  in  his 
work  in  defence  of  Scotus.  speaking  of  a  brother 
Franciscan,  who,  he  says,  understood  the  language 
of  beasts,  and  was  enabled  by  that  means  to  fore- 
tel  coming  events.  The  belief  that  birds  are  pos- 
sessed of  a  knowledge  of  futurity,  is  part  of  the 
same  notion  which  has  led  men  to  seek  indications 
of  what  is  about  to  happen  in  their  flight  and  other 
movements,  and  which  has  given  rise  both  to  the 
ancient  vaticination  by  augury,  and  to  various  pop- 
ular superstitions  which  still  survive.  The  power 
of  communicating  the  gift  of  prophecy  inherent  in 
the  serpent,  was  also  a  prominent  article  of  the 
mystic  creed  of  antiquity.  The  Trojan  prophetess 
Cassandra  is  said  to  have  acquired  her  art  by  hav- 
ing been  left  one  night,  when  a  child,  together  with 
her  twin  brother  Helenus,  in  the  temple  of  Apollo, 
when  the  two  were  found  next  morning  with  some 
serpents  coiled  round  them  and  licking  their  ears. 
And  Pliny,  in  his  natural  History,  tells  us  that  De- 
mocritus  had  mentioned  the  names  of  certain  birds, 


LANGUAGE.  185 

whose  blood,  being  mixed  together,  would  produce 
a  serpent  of  such  virtue,  that  any  one  who  ate  of 
it  should  understand  whatever  was  said  by  birds 
when  they  conversed  together.  This  story  is  allu- 
ded to  by  Addison  in  one  of  his  Spectators. 

It  were  to  be  wished  that  all  fables  in  natural  his- 
tory were  as  obvious  to  an  ordinary  reader  as  this ; 
for  we  meet  with  others  in  books  wearing  the  air 
of  well-ascertained  facts,  which  could  only  originate 
in  the  fancy  of  the  writers.  This  is  exemplified  in 
the  story  told  of  the  butcher-bird  (Lanius  excuUtor), 
which  is  said  to  imitate  the  voices  of  other  birds, 
by  way  of  decoying  them  within  his  reach,  that  he 
may  devour  them  ;  "  excepting  this,"  it  is  added, 
"  his  natural  note  is  the  same  throughout  all  sea- 
sons :  when  kept  in  a  cage,  even  when  he  seems 
perfectly  contented,  he  is  always  mute."*  We  ven- 
ture to  say,  however,  that  nobody  will  ever  be  able 
to  authenticate  this  statement,  for  the  organs  of  the 
bird,  were  there  no  other  obstacle,  seem  altogether 
incapable  of  the  variety  of  modulation  which  the 
habit  imputed  to  it  would  require,  though,  like  most, 
if  not  all  other  birds,  this  species  can  express  more 
than  one  sort  of  feeling. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

SONGS   OF  BIRDS. 

THE  songs  of  birds  have  given  rise  to  several  cu- 
rious inquiries  of  no  small  interest  to  naturalists, 
some  of  which  it  may  prove  both  amusing  and  in- 
structive to  detail.  We  may,  however,  begin  by 

*  Anim.  Biog.,  ii.,  219. 
Q2 


186  HABITS    OF  BIRDS. 

stating,  that,  after  investigating  the  subject  with 
considerable  attention  for  many  years,  we  have 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  notes  of  birds  which 
are  denominated  singing,  may  all  be  referred  to  hi- 
larity and  joy,  or  to  rivalry  and  defiance,  rather  than 
to  imitation  or  to  love,  as  has  been  maintained  by 
some  naturalists  of  celebrity.  Mr.  Pennant  gives 
the  following  view  of  the  matter : 

"  It  may  be  worthy,"  lie  says,  "  of  observation, 
that  the  female  of  no  species  of  birds  ever  sings ; 
with  birds  it  is  the  reverse  of  what  occurs  in  human 
kind  ;  among  the  feathered  tribe,  all  the  cares  of  life 
fall  to  the  lot  of  the  tender  sex  :  theirs  is  the  fatigue 
of  incubation,  and  the  principal  share  in  nursing  the 
helpless  brood :  to  alleviate  these  fatigues,  and  to 
support  her  under  them,  nature  hath  given  to  the 
male  the  song,  with  all  the  little  blandishments  and 
soothing  arts;  these  he  fondly  exerts  (even  after 
courtship),  on  some  spray  contiguous  to  the  nest, 
during  the  time  his  mate  is  performing  her  parental 
duties.  To  these  we  may  add  a  few  particulars 
that  fell  within  our  notice  during  our  inquiries  among 
the  birdcatchers,  such  as,  that  they  immediately 
kill  the  hens  of  every  species  of  birds  they  take, 
being  incapable  of  singing."* 

Buffbn  makes  the  qualified  statement  that  "the 
females  are  much  more  silent  than  the  males,  song 
being  generally  withheld  from  them ;"  probably 
resting  on  the  authority  of  Lord  Bacon,  who  says 
"that  male  birds,  among  singing  birds,  are  ever  the 
better  singers."  The  latter  again  most  likely  fol- 
lowed Aristotle,  who  says,  "some  males  sing  like 
their  females,  as  appears  among  nightingales,  but 
the  female  gives  over  song  when  she  hatches." 
Daines  Barrington,  assuming  it  as  a  fact  that  females 
never  sing,  proceeds  to  divine  the  reason  thereof, 
inferring  it  to  be  because  it  might  betray  their  nest 

*  Brit.  Zool,  ii.,  335. 


SONGS.  187 

should  they  sing  while  sitting  on  their  eggs.  But 
before  drawing  such  a  conclusion,  it  would  have 
been  well  to  make  sure  of  the  fact.  It  is  certainly 
true  as  a  general  position,  that  female  birds  do  not 
sing;  yet  many  exceptions  have  been  recorded. 
We  possess,  at  present,  in  the  same  aviary  with  two 
greenbirds  and  an  aberdevine  (Carduelis  spinus),  a 
female  canary  who  sings  a  great  deal.  Her  notes 
indeed  are  harsh  and  unmusical,  but  are  both  loud 
and  uttered  in  a  full  and  sustained  tone  of  voice, 
though  altogether  unlike  the  notes  either  of  the 
male  canary  or  of  any  other  bird  with  which  we  are 
acquainted.  It  is  no  less  worthy  of  remark,  that 
this  female  canary  is  never  excited  to  rivalry  by  the 
songs  of  a  number  of  other  birds  in  the  same  apart- 
ment, as  the  cocks  of  every  species  commonly  are  ; 
for  she  usually  remains  silent,  during  the  attempts 
of  the  others  to  sing  each  other  down,  and  prefers 
singing  at  night  when  the  others  are  for  the  most 
part  silent.  We  have  also  remarked,  in  birds  rear- 
ed from  the  nest,  that  the  females  will  record,  as  it 
is  termed,  the  first  rehearsal,  warbling  in  the  low 
preluding  manner  peculiar  to  all  birds  some  time 
before  coming  into  full  song.  This  was  particular- 
ly the  case  with  the  greenbirds  just  mentioned, 
and  one  female  greenbird  will  at  present  record  in 
a  similar  manner,  while  her  brother  of  the  same 
age  begins  to  sing  in  good  earnest. 

Mr.  Sweet,  the  well-known  botanical  writer,  and 
author  of  the  " British  Warblers,"  says  that  "fe- 
males seldom  sing:  I  had  a  female  redstart  which 
sang  a  little  ;  and  female  bulfinches  sing  as  fre- 
quently as  the  males."  Again,  Mr.  Sweet  says,  '-'I 
have  had  several  female  birds  which  never  attempt- 
ed to  sing;  but  now  I  have  two  that  sing  frequent- 
ly; one  is  a  female  black-cap;  she  sings  a  note  pe- 
culiar to  herself,  and  not  the  least  like  the  male,  or 
any  other  bird  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  I  kept 
her  several  years  before  she  began  to  sing.  I  have 


188  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

also  a  female  willow-wren  that  sings  nearly  as  much 
as  the  cock;  this  bird  was  bred  up  from  the  nest, 
and  did  not  sing  at  all  the  first  year.  Her  note  is 
quite  different  from  that  of  the  male,  but  resembles 
it  sufficiently  to  indicate  that  it  belongs  to  the  same 
species."*  "  In  nightingales,"  says  M.  Montbeil- 
lard,  "  as  in  other  species,  there  are  females  which 
enjoy  some  prerogatives  of  the  male,  and  particu- 
larly participate  of  his  song.  I  saw  a  female  of 
that  sort  which  was  tame ;  her  warble  resembled 
that  of  the  male,  yet  neither  so  full  nor  so  varied ; 
she  retained  it  until  spring,  when,  resuming  the 
character  of  the  sex,  she  exchanged  it  for  the  oc- 
cupation of  building  her  nest  and  laying  her  eggs, 
though  she  had  no  mate.  It  would  seem  that  in 
warm  countries,  as  in  Greece,  such  females  are 
pretty  common,  both  in  this  species  and  many  oth- 
ers ;  at  least  this  is  implied  in  a  passage  of  Aris- 
totle." 

With  respect,  again,  to  Mr.  Barrington's  inference 
that  the  want  of  song  in  the  female  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  concealing  the  eggs,  Mr.  Sweet  farther  says, 
"  I  certainly  have  never  heard  a  thrush  sing  when 
sitting"  (as  had  been  asserted  by  a  correspondent 
in  a  recent  periodical  work),  "  perhaps  for  want  of 
attending  to  it ;  but  I  have  frequently  heard  and 
seen  the  male  black-cap  sing  while  sitting  on  the 
eggs,  and  have  found  its  nest  by  it  more  than  once ; 
the  male  of  this  species  sitting  nearly  as  much  as 
the  female."  These  well-authenticated  facts,  as 
well  as  more  that  we  could  adduce,  are  fatal  to  the 
theory. 

St.  Ambrose,  on  the  other  hand,  asserts  that  "  the 
nightingale,  by  the  sweetness  of  her  -song,  solaces 
herself  during  the  long  nights  in  which  she  is  hatch- 
ing her  eggs,  watchful  and  sleepless." 

Another  hypothesis  advocated  by  several  natural- 

*  Magazine  of  Nat.  Hist.,  i.,  346. 


SONGS.  189 

ists,  and  adopted  by  poets,  is,  that  the  singing  of 
birds  is  the  language  of  courtship  and  affection. 
"  The  song  of  male  birds,"  says  Buffon,  "  springs 
from  the  emotion  of  love  :  the  canary  in  his  cage, 
the  greenbird  in  (the  fields,  the  oriole  in  the  woods, 
chant  th^tnotes  with  a  fond,  sonorous  voice,  and 
their  matwrreply  in  more  feeble  strains."  He  adds, 
"\vhat  is  by  no  means  the  fact,  that  "  the  nightingale, 
when  he  first  arrives  in  spring,  is  silent,  begins  with 
faltering,  infrequent  airs,  and  it  is  not  till  the  dam 
sits  on  her  eggs  that  he  pours  out  the  warm  melody 
of  his  heart:  then  he  relieves  and  sooths  her  te- 
dious incubation;  then  he  redoubles  his  caresses, 
and  warbles  with  deeper  pathos."  On  the  contrary, 
we  uniformly  observe  among  the  innumerable  night- 
ingales which  annually  arrive  in  our  neighbourhood 
in  spring,  that  the  males  sing  out  in  as  full,  clear 
notes  on  their  first  appearanqe  (usually  many  days 
before  the  arrival  of  the  females)  as  they  ever  do 
afterward.  Buffon  concludes  that  his  opinion  de- 
rives additional  support  from  the  circumstance  of 
song-birds  becoming  silent,  or  their  notes  being  less 
sweet  after  the  breeding  season  is  over. 

Another  naturalist  of  eminence,  Colonel  Monta- 
gu, is  more  circumstantial  in  his  arguments  for  the 
same  opinion;  and  though  we  do  not  agree- altogeth- 
er with  his  explanations,  the  greater  number  of  his 
facts  are  unquestionable.  "  The  males  of  song- 
birds," he  says,  "  and  many  others,  do  not,  in  gen- 
eral, search  for  the  female ;  but,  on  the  contrary, 
their  business  in  the  spring  is  to  perch  on  some 
conspicuous  spot,  breathing  out  their  full  notes, 
which,  by  instinct,  the  female  knows,  and  repairs 
to  the  spot  to  choose  her  mate.  This  is  particu- 
larly verified  with  respect  to  the  summer-birds  of 
passage.  The  nightingale,  and  most  of  its  genus, 
although  timid  and  shy  to  a  great  degree,  mount 
aloft,  and  incessantly  pour  forth  their  strains,  each 
seemingly  vying  in  its  love-laboured  song  before 


190  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

the  females  arrive.  No  sooner  do  they  make  their 
appearance  than  dreadful  battles  ensue,  and  their 
notes  are  considerably  changed ;  sometimes  their 
song  is  hurried  through  without  the  usual  grace  and 
elegance,  at  other  times  modulated  into  a  soothing 
melody.  The  first  we  conceive  to  be  aM»vocation 
to  battle  on  the  sight  of  another  male  ;™e  last,  an 
amorous  cadence  or  courting  address.  This  varie- 
ty of  song  lasts  no  longer  than  till  the  female  is  fixed 
in  her  choice,  which  is,  in  general,  in  a  few  days 
after  her  arrival ;  and,  if  the  season  is  favourable, 
she  soon  begins  the  task  allotted  to  her  sex. 

"  The  male  now  no  more  exposes  himself  to  sing 
as  before,  nor  are  his  songs  heard  so  frequently  or 
so  loud ;  but  while  she  is  searching  for  a  secure 
place  to  build  her  nest  in,  he  is  no  less  assiduous  in 
attending  her  with  ridiculous  gestures,  accompanied 
with  notes  peculiarly  soft.  When  the  female  has 
chosen  a  place  for  nidification,  the  male  constantly 
attends  her  flight  to  and  from  the  place,  and  sits 
upon  some  branch  near,  while  his  mate  instinctively 
places  the  small  portion  of  material  she  each  time 
brings  to  rear  a  commodious  fabric  for  her  intended 
brood.  When  the  building  is  complete  and  she  has 
laid  her  portion  of  eggs,  incubation  immediately 
takes  place.  The  male  is  now  heard  loud  again, 
but  not  near  so  frequently  as  at  first ;  he  never  ram- 
bles from  her  hearing,  and  seldom  from  her  sight; 
if  she  leaves  her  nest,  he  soon  perceives  it,  and  pur- 
sues her,  sometimes  accompanied  with  soft  notes 
of  love.  When  the  callow  brood  appears,  he  is  in- 
stantly apprized  of  it,  either  by  instinct,  or  by  the 
female  carrying  away  the  fragment  shells  to  some 
distant  place.  The  male  is  now  no  more  heard  in 
tuneful  glee,  unless  a  second  brood  should  force  the 
amorous  song  again ;  his  whole  attention  is  now 
taken  up  in  satisfying  the  nutrimental  calls  of  his 
tender  infant  race,  which  he  does  with  no  less  as- 
siduity than  his  mate,  carrying  them  food,  and  re- 


SONGS.  191 

turning  frequently  with  the  muting  of  the  young  in 
his  beak,  which  is  dropped  at  a  distance  from  the 
nest."* 

Plausible  as  this  reasoning  seems  to  be,  it  will 
not  be  difficult  to  adduce  numerous  facts  with  which 
it  will  not^accord.  It  is  not,  indeed,  a  correct  state- 
ment of  the  fact,  to  say  that  birds  sing  only  during 
the  seasons  of  pairing  and  breeding,  as  Buffon  and 
Montagu  assume.  This  is  the  case  with  the  greater 
number  of  the  seed-eating  song-birds,  both  wild  and 
tame;  but  not  with  the  soft-billed  birds.  The  red- 
breast sings  as  merrily  during  sharp  frost  as  in  the 
heyday  of  summer  or  in  the  mild  sunshine  of  au- 
tumn. A  much  smaller  arid  more  delicate  bird,  the 
wren  (Anorthura  communis),  also  sings  in  all  weath- 
ers during  the  autumn  and  winter,  as  well  as  the 
little  dunnock  (Accentor  modularis) ;  and  they  are 
frequently  accompanied  by  the  thrush  and  the  black- 
bird. Though  the  latter  do  not  sing  so  long  and 
so  frequently  as  in  summer,  this  appears  to  be  more 
on  account  of  the  physical  languor  arising  from  a 
precarious  supply  of  food  than  from  its  not  being 
the  pairing  season. 

"We  have  one  little  bird,"  says  Mr.  Knapp,  "the 
woodlark  (Alauda  arborea),  that  in  the  early  parts 
of  the  autumnal  months  delights  us  with  its  har- 
mony ;  and  its  carols  may  be  heard  in  the  air  com- 
monly during  the  calm  sunny  mornings  of  this  sea- 
son. They  have  a  softness  and  quietness  perfectly 
in  unison  with  the  sober,  almost  melancholy  still- 
ness of  the  hour.  The  skylark  also  sings  now,  and 
its  song  is  very  sweet,  full  of  harmony,  cheerful  as 
the  blue  sky  and  gladdening  beam  in  which  it  circles 
and  sports,  and  known  and  admired  by  all ;  but  the 
voice  of  the  woodlark  is  local,  not  so  generally 
heard  from  its  softness,  must  almost  be  listened  for 
to  be  distinguished,  and  has  not  any  pretensions  to 

*  Ornithological  Diet.,  Intr*  1st  ed. ;  p.  476,  2d  ed. 


192  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

the  hilarity  of  the  former.  This  little  bird  sings 
likewise  in  the  spring."* 

The  researches  of  comparative  anatomy  have 
thrown  much  light  upon  the  peculiar  structure  of 
song-birds,  though  there  remain  still  many  points  of 
interest  for  future  investigation.  This,  indeed,  was 
a  subject  taken  up  by  the  earlier  naturalists,  and 
most  of  their  observations  have  been  subsequently 
confirmed  and  extended.  Among  other  curious  facts, 
it  is  stated  in  Clayton's  Letters  from  Virginia,  that 
Dr.  Moulin  discovered  that. in  birds,  contrary  to 
what  takes  place  in  man  and  in  quadrupeds,  there 
is  almost  a  direct  passage  from  one  ear  to  the  other ; 
so  that,  if  the  drum  (tympanum)  of  both  ears  be 
pierced,  water,  when  poured  in,  will  pass  from  the 
one  to  the  other.  There  is  no  spiral  shell  (cochlea), 
but  a  small  passage  which  opens  into  a  cavity  form- 
ed by  two  plates  of  bone  that  constitute  a  double 
scull  all  round  the  head.  The  outer  plate  of  bone 
is  supported  by  many  hundreds  of  small  threadlike 
columns,  or,  rather,  fibres.  Now  this  passage  was 
observed  to  be  much  larger  in  singing-birds  than  in 
others  that  do  not  sing ;  so  very  remarkably  so,  that 
any  person  to  whom  the  difference  has  once  been 
shown,  may  easily  judge  by  the  head  what  bird  has 
the  faculty  of  singing,  though  he  may  be  otherwise 
ignorant  of  its  habits. f  We  have  not  seen  any 
notice  of  this  singular  circumstance  by  any  other 
inquirer. 

The  remarks  of  Syme  upon  this  subject  are  ap- 
propriate and,  so  far  as  we  know,  correct.  "  The 
notes,"  he  tells  us,  "  of  soft-billed  birds  are  finely 
toned,  mellow,  and  plaintive  ;  those  of  the  hard-bill- 
ed species  are  sprightly,  cheerful,  and  rapid.  This 
difference  proceeds  from  the  construction  of  the  vo- 
cal organs.  As  a  large  pipe  of  an  organ  produces 

*  Journal  of  a  Naturalist,  p.  265,  3d  edit. 
f  Miscellanea  Curiosa,  iii.,  291. 


SONGS.  193 

a  deeper  and  more  mellow-toned  note  than  a  small 
pipe,  so  the  windpipe  of  the  nightingale,  which  is 
wider  than  that  of  the  canary,  sends  forth  a  deeper 
and  more  mellow-toned  note.  Soft-billed  birds  also 
sing  more  from  the  lower  part  of  the  throat  than 
the  hard-billed  species.  This,  together  with  the 
greater  width,  of  the  tube  in  the  nightingale  and 
other  soft-billed  warblers,  firily  accounts  for  their 
soft,  round,  mellow  notes,  compared  with  the  shrill, 
sharp,  and  clear  notes  of  the  canary  and  other  hard- 
billed  song-birds."* 

Though  birds  of  the  same  species  very  closely 
resemble  each  other  in  the  general  tenour  of  their 
song,  individuals  differ  widely  both  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  particular  passages,  the  result,  probably,  of 
accidental  acquirements,  and  in  skill  of  execution 
as  well  as  in  intonation,  the  latter  peculiarities  obvi- 
ously depending  on  physical  varieties  in  their  vocal 
organs.  Wilson  says  he  was  so  familiar  with  the 
notes  of  an  individual  wood-thrush  (Turdus  melodus), 
that  he  could  recognise  him  above  his  fellows  the 
moment  he  entered  the  woods. f 

Mr.  Knapp  has  the  following  excellent  and  accu- 
rate remarks  on  the  same  subject.  "  Birds,"  he 
says,  "  of  one  species  sing,  in  general,  very  like  each 
other,  with  different  degrees  of  execution.  Some 
counties  may  produce  finer  songsters,  but  without 
great  variation  in  the  notes.  In  the  thrush,  how- 
ever, it  is  remarkable  that  there  seems  to  be  no 
regular  notes,  each  individual  piping  a  voluntary  of 
his  own.  Their  voices  may  always  be  distinguished 
amid  the  choristers  of  the  copse,  yet  some  one  per- 
former will  more  particularly  engage  attention  by 
a  peculiar  modulation  or  tone ;  and  should  several 
stations  of  these  birds  be  visited  in  the  same  morn- 
ing, few  or  none,  probably,  will  be  found  to  pre- 

*  British  Song-birds, 
t  Amer.  Ornith, 
R 


194 


HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 


serve  the  same  round  of  notes,  whatever  is  uttered 
seeming  the  effusion  of  the  moment.  At  times  a 
strain  will  break  out  perfectly  unlike  any  preceding 
utterance,  and  we  may  wait  a  long  time  without  no- 


Wood-thrush. 

ticing  any  repetition  of  it.  During  one  spring  an  in- 
dividual song-thrush,  frequenting  a  favourite  copse, 
after  a  certain  round  of  tune,  trilled  out  most  regu- 
larly some  notes  that  conveyed  so  clearly  the 
words  lady-bird !  lady-bird  !  that  every  one  remark- 
ed the  resemblance.  He  survived  the  winter,  and 
in  the  ensuing  spring,  the  lady-bird !  lady-bird  !  was 
still  the  burden  of  our  evening  song ;  it  then  ceased, 
and  we  never  heard  this  pretty  modulation  more. 
Though  merely  an  occasional  strain,  yet  I  have  no- 
ticed it  elsewhere ;  it  thus  appearing  to  be  a  favour- 
ite utterance."* 

*  Journal  of  a  Naturalist,  p.  271,  3d  ed. 


SONGS.  195 

We  have  ourselves,  in  many  instances,  observed 
what  might  be  not  inappropriately  called  a  different 
dialect  among  the  same  species  of  song-birds  in 
different  counties,  and  even  in  places  a  lew  miles 
distant  from  each  other.  This  difference  is  more 
readily  remarked  in  the  chaffinch,  dunnock,  and 
yellow-hammer,  than  in  the  more  melodious  species. 
The  chaffinches,  for  example,  in  Normandy,  we  ob- 
served to  vary  from  those  of  Scotland  by  several 
notes ;  and  among  the  yellow-hammers  in  Ireland, 
England,  and  Holland,  we  detected  similar  differen- 
ces. We  once  heard  a  dunnock  (Accentor  modula- 
ris)  in  a  garden  at  Blackheath  sing  so  many  addi- 
tional notes  to  its  common  song,  that  we  concluded 
it  was  of  a  different  species,  till  we  ascertained,  by 
watching  the  little  musician,  that  it  was  not  other- 
wise distinguished  from  its  less  accomplished  breth- 
ren. Of  the  chaffinch,  Barrington  says  that  those 
of  Essex  are  more  esteemed  than  others  by  the 
London  birdcatchers  ;  and  Pennant  tells  us,  he  knew 
five  guineas  paid  for  one  which  had  an  uncommon 
note,  under  which  it  was  intended  to  train  others. 
In  Italy,  as  we  learn  from  M.  Montbeillard,  the  lin- 
nets of  Abruzzo  and  of  the  March  of  Ancona  are 
preferred. 

It  must  be  from,  some  peculiarities  of  this  kind 
that  the  nightingales  of  Persia,  Karamania,  and 
Greece  are  said  to  sing  better  than  those  of  Italy; 
while  the  Italian  birds  are  more  esteemed  by  ama- 
teurs than  those  of  France,  and  the  French  than 
those  of  England.  According  to  Pausanias,  the 
nightingales  which  sing  near  the  tomb  of  Orpheus 
are  more  melodious  than  elsewhere,  and  a  similar 
superiority  was  also  popularly  believed  to  belong  to 
those  of  Thrace.  Both  of  these  opinions  are  also 
maintained  by  Philostratus,  though  most  probably 
no  better  founded  than  the  legend  current  in  Ireland, 
that  the  larks  in  the  wild  gloomy  valley  of  Glanda- 
lough  never  sing,  having  been  miraculously  silen- 


196  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

ced  by  St.  Kevin  during  the  building  of  the  Seven 
Churches,  because  they  broke  the  morning  sleep 
of  the  wearied  masons  by  their  loud  matin  war- 
blings. 

In  opposition  to  the  popular  notion  founded  on 
the  theoretical  reasoning  of  Buffon,  M.  Vaillant  re- 
marks, "  It  is  quite  a  prejudice  that  the  birds  of 
warm  climates  are  more  brilliant  than  ours;  witness 
our  kingfisher  and  jay;  or  that  they  do  not  sing; 
for  the  song-bi*ds,  both  in  Africa  and  America, 
equal,  and  often  surpass,  our  European  birds.  The 
traveller,  Bruce  also  tells  us  that  the  song  of  the 
lark  in  Abyssinia  did  not  appear  to  differ  from  that 
of  the  European  larks  ;  and  M.  Savigny,  as  we  have 
already  mentioned,  heard  the  white-throat  singing 
in  Egypt.  All  the  Oriental  poets,  indeed,  introduce 
the  music  of  the  groves  as  an  indispensable  accom- 
paniment in  their  finest  descriptions.  King  Solo- 
mon says,  "  The  time  of  the  singing  of  birds  is  come, 
and  the  voice  of  the  turtle  is  heard  in  our  land ;"  and 
the  naturalist,  Haselquist,  found  nightingales  in 
Palestine,  as  M.  Le  Marie  had  done  in  Africa.  The 
Persian  poet  Hafiz,  also,  as  well  as  the  author  of  the 
"  Rarnayuna,"  and  the  Hindoo  dramatist  who  wrote 
"  Sacontala,"  are  loud  in  their  praises  of  the  music 
of  birds,  while  in  the  Koran  and  the  Arabian  Tales 
they  are  often  mentioned. 

In  speaking  of  the  wood-thrush  (Turdus  melodas) 
of  America,  Wilson  indignantly  repels  the  assertions 
of  Buffon,  who  represents  this  bird  as  destitute  of 
any  note  but  a  single  scream,  and  hence  draws  an 
argument  for  his  absurd  theory  of  its  being  the  song- 
thrush  of  Europe,  degenerated  by  food  and  climate, 
so  that  its  cry  is  now  harsh  and  unpleasant,  as  are, 
he  says,  the  cries  of  all  birds  that  live  in  wild  coun- 
tries, inhabited  by  savages.  Wilson's  description 
of  the  song  of  this  bird  is  well  worth  giving.  "  This 
sweet  and  solitary  songster,"  he  says,  "  inhabits  the 
whole  of  North  America,  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  the 


SONGS.  197 

Peninsula  of  Florida.  He  arrives  in  Pennsylvania 
about  the  20th  of  April  or  soon  after,  and  returns 
to  the  South  about  the  beginning  of  October.  But, 
at  whatever  time  the  wood-thrush  may  arrive,  he 
soon  announces  his  presence  in  the  woods.  With 
the  dawn  of  the  succeeding  morning,  mounting  to 
the  top  of  some  tall  tree,  that  rises  from  alow,  thick- 
shaded  part  of  the  woods,  he  pipes  his  few  but  clear 
and  musical  notes  in  a  kind  of  ecstasy  ;  the  prelude 
or  symphony  to  which  strongly  resembles  the  dou- 
ble-tonguing  of  a  German  flute,  and  sometimes  the 
tinkling  of  a  small  bell;  the  whole  song  consists 
of  five  or  six  parts,  the  last  note  of  each  of  which  is 
in  such  a  tone  as  to  leave  the  conclusion  evidently 
suspended  ;  the  finale  is  finely  managed,  and  with 
such  charming  effect  as  to  sooth  and  tranquillize  the 
mind,  and  to 'seem  sweeter  and  mellower  at  each 
successive  repetition.  Rival  songsters  of  the  same 
species  challenge  each  other  from  different  parts  of 
the  wood,  seeming  to  vie  for  softer  tones  and  more 
exquisite  responses.  During  the  burning  heat  of 
the  day  they  are  comparatively  mute ;  but  in  the 
evening  the  same  melody  is  renewed  and  continued 
long  after  sunset.  Those  who  visit  our  woods,  or 
ride  out  into  the  country  at  these  hours,  during  the 
months  of  May  and  June,  will  be  at  no  loss  to  rec- 
ognise, from  the  above  description,  this  pleasing 
musician.  Even  in  dark,  wet,  and  gloomy  weather, 
when  scarce  a  single  chirp  is  heard  from  any  other 
bird,  the  clear  notes  of  the  wood-thrush  thrill  through 
the  drooping  woods  from  morning  till  night;  and  it 
may  truly  be  said,  that  the  sadder  the  day  the  sweeter 
is  his  song."* 

There  are  upward  of  twenty  other  American 
birds  which  Wilson  characterizes  in  the  same  graph- 
ic manner;  such  as  the  brown  thrush  (T.  rufus), 
whose  song  is  emphatic,  full  of  variety,  and  so  loud 

*  Amer.  Ornith.,  i.,  33. 
R2 


198  HABITS    OP   BIRDS. 

that  in  a  serene  morning,  when  the  wind  is  hushed, 
and  before  "  the  busy  hum  of  men"  begins,  his  voice 
maybe  distinguished  at  the  distance  of  half  a  mile ; 
the  migratory  thrush  (T.  migratorius),  who  is  an 
early  songster,  frequently  commencing  before  the 
snow  has  disappeared,  and  perching  on  a  stake  or 
fence  to  begin  the  prelude  to  the  general  concert ; 
the  Baltimore  oriole  (Oriolus  BalLimorus),  whose 
notes  consist  of  a  clear  mellow  whistle,  repeated  at 
short  intervals  as  he  gleams  among  the  branches, 
characterized  by  a  certain  wild  plaintiveness  and 
interesting  simplicity,  like  that  of  a  careless  plough- 
boy  whistling  for  amusement,  and  that  even  among 
the  poplars  of  the  American  streets,  amid  the  din 
of  coaches,  and  wheelbarrows,  and  the  bawling  of 
oyster-women  ;  the  Virginian  nightingale  (Loxia 
cardinalis),  who  sings  from  March  till  September 
with  great  clearness,  melody,  vivacity,  variety,  and 
sprightliness,  many  of  his  notes  being  as  loud  as 
those  of  a  fife  ;  and  the  song  sparrow  (Fringilla  me- 
loda),  by  far  the  earliest,  the  most  unwearied,  and 
sweetest  of  the  American  song-birds,  whose  notes 
resemble  the  beginning  of  the  canary's  song.  But 
we  may  mention  another  instance  still  more  adverse 
to  the  theory,  that,  namely,  of  the  ricebird  (Embe- 
riza  oryzivora),  which  is  found  not  only  in  the  more 
temperate  latitudes,  but  in  Jamaica,  and,  we  believe, 
other  tropical  localities.  His  song  is  highly  musi- 
cal; and  mounting  and  hovering  on  the  wing,  at  a 
small  height  above  ground,  he  chants  out  a  jingling 
melody  of  varied  notes,  as  if  half  a  dozen  birds  were 
singing  together.  Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  it 
by  striking  the  high  keys  of  a  piano-forte  singly  and 
quickly,  making  as  many  contrasts  as  possible  of 
high  and  low  notes.  M^ny  of  the  tones  are  delight- 
ful, but  the  ear  can  with  difficulty  separate  them. 
The  general  effect  of  the  whole  is  good ;  and,  when 
ten  or  twelve  are  singing  on  the  same  tree,  the  con- 
cert is  singularly  pleasing.  These  examples  are 


IMITATION  AND  MIMICRY.      199 

sufficiently  conclusive  against  the  theory  that  there 
are  none  or  only  inferior  song-birds  in  the  forests 
of  America. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

IMITATION    AND    MIMICRY    OF    BIRDS. 

"  MIMICRY,"  says  Lord  Chesterfield,  "  which  is 
the  common  and  favourite  amusement  of  little,  low 
minds,  is  in  the  utmost  contempt  with  great  ones. 
It  is  the  lowest  and  most  illiberal  of  all  buffoonery; 
we  should  neither  practice  it  nor  applaud  it  in 
others."*  Yet,  in  despite  of  his  lordship's  authority, 
mimicry  and  imitation  are  and  will  be  practised,  and 
relished  and  applauded  so  long  as  men  continue  to 
receive  pleasure  from  exercising  their  minds  in  ma- 
king comparisons ;  for  this  exercise  is  always  pleas- 
ing in  proportion  to  the  activity  of  mind,  or  the  flow 
of  associated  ideas  thereby  produced,  perhaps  the 
true  origin,  indeed,  of  all  our  mental  pleasures. 

All  this  may  be  true  so  far  as  it  goes ;  but  the 

Eleasure  of  making  comparisons  is  only  a  particu- 
ir  instance  of  the  pleasure  we  have  in  perceiving 
similitude  in  dissimilitude,  or  sameness  combined 
with  variety ;  and  this  is  the  true  principle  of  the 
phenomenon  under  consideration. 

If  we  hear  a  parrot  utter  an  imitation  of  the 
words  "  Pretty  Poll,"  we  immediately  trace  a  se- 
ries of  resemblances  or  differences  between  the 
pronunciation  of  the  words  by  the  parrot  and  by  a 
man ;  and  if  the  bird  comes  near  the  sound,  we  are 
pleased  in  tracing  the  resemblance,  while  we  admire 

*  Letters,  vol.  ii. 


200  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

the  successfulness  of  the  effort  in  accomplishing 
•what  might  be  previously  supposed  a  difficult  task 
for  a  bird,  the  overcoming  of  any  difficulty  having 
always  the  effect  of  exciting  proportional  admira- 
tion, from  the  sympathy  of  the  passive  spectator 
with  the  active  agent,  who  feels  his  incapability  of 
executing  the  same  feat  in  all  its  particulars. 

A  story  is  told  of  Goldsmith,  that  having  gone 
•with  Johnson  and  Burke  to  see  an  exhibition  of  pup- 
pets, his  vanity  was  hurt  at  their  praising  the  agil- 
ity displayed  by  the  figures,  which,  with  character- 
istic simplicity,  he  volunteered  to  equal,  and  began 
accordingly,  in  good  earnest,  to  skip  over  the  chairs 
in  the  room,  without  reflecting  that  it  was  not  ex- 
actly the  agility  that  had  pleased  them  and  drawn 
forth  their  admiration,  but  the  imitation  of  living 
actions,  producing  in  their  minds  a  train  of  compar- 
ison between  the  puppets  and  the  motions  of  the 
animals  imitated. 

The  truth  of  these  views  appears  to  be  proved  by 
the  fact,  that  when  the  imitation  is  so  perfect  as  to 
amount  to  a  belief  of  its  identity  with  what  is  imi- 
tated, no  pleasure  is  produced  by  an  observer,  in 
consequence  of  his  mind  not  being  excited  to  insti- 
tute a  train  of  comparisons.  In  the  case  of  the  par- 
rot, when  the  words  are  heard  while  the  bird  is  un- 
seen, the  articulation  never  so  nearly  imitates  hu- 
manity as  to  prevent  the  hearer  from  immediately 
recognising  the  voice  to  be  that  of  a  bird;  but  were 
the  imitation  perfect  (supposing  the  bird  still  un- 
seen), instead  of  a  hearer  going  into  a  comparison 
respecting  the  imitation,  he  would  immediately  in- 
fer that  the  words  "  Pretty  Poll"  were  uttered  by 
some  person  calling  to  a  parrot,  rather  than  suppose 
them  to  be  uttered  by  a  bird.  We  recollect  an  in- 
stance of  a  starling,  which  had  been  taught  by  an 
Ayrshire  hairdresser  to  repeat  the  words  "  Get  up, 
sir,"  with  surprising  correctness  of  articulation. 
The  tone  of  voice  was  husky  and  whispering,  and 


IMITATION  AND  MIMICRY.        201 

the  first  time  we  heard  it  from  the  bird,  hanging  in 
a  dark  corner  of  the  shop,  we  could  not  imagine 
whence  the  words  proceeded,  and  were  led  to  fancy 
that  it  might  be  some  idiot  boy  repeating,  as  is  com- 
mon in  such  cases,  his  favourite  phrase  ;  but  no 
sooner  did  we  learn  the  truth,  than  the  correctness 
of  the  execution  became  a  matter  of  comparison 
and  of  wonder. 

But  whatever  may  be  the  cause  of  the  pleasure 
we  take  in  hearing  such  imitations  by  birds,  both  of 
the  sounds  of  one  another  and  of  animals  of  a  dif- 
ferent order,  they  are  in  many  cases  possessed  of 
considerable  interest.  In  Kent,  Norfolk,  and  some 
other  parts  of  England,  the  black-cap  and  the  fau- 
vette  (Philomela  hortenfis)  are  both  called  the  mock 
nightingale,  under  the  notion,  probably,  of  their  im- 
itating its  song;  but  no  person  who  is  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  nightingale's  song  could  for  a  mo- 
ment suppose  the  notes  of  either  of  these  two  birds 
to  be  an  imitation  of  it,  though  they  are  both  de- 
lightful songsters,  and  one  of  each  species,  at  the 
time  we  write  this,  is  trying  to  excel  the  other,  in 
the  garden  opposite  to  our  study. 

Another  English  bird,  the  sedgebird  (Rip&cola 
salicaria),  is  represented  as  a  genuine  mockbird. 
"  The  artificial  notes,"  it  has  been  remarked,  "  which 
wild  birds  acquire  by  imitation,  are  seldom  alto- 
gether perfect,  and  may,  in  most  cases,  be  recog- 
nised as  imitations.  This  remark  is  confirmed  by 
the  fact,  that  mockbirds,  which  may  be  considered 
as  having  no  natural  songs  of  their  own,  cannot  go 
through  with  any  set  of  notes  without  introducing 
tones  foreign  to  the  notes  they  are  imitating.  The 
mockbird  of  this  country"  (Ripacola  salicaria), 
"  whose  retired  habits  cause  it  to  be  but  little  at- 
tended to,  may  be  heard  hurrying  over  in  succes- 
sion the  song  of  the  wren,  wagtail,  and  skylark,  the 
twitter  of  the  swallow,  and  the  chirp  of  the  spar- 
row and  the  chaffinch ;  but  it  often  introduces  a  deep 


202 


HABITS    OP  BIRDS. 


harsh  note,  which  belongs  to  no  other  native  bird, 
though  it  has  a  distant  resemblance  to  the  chirr  of 
the  whitethroat.  Indeed,  the  mockbird,  both  in  its 
size  and  colour,  as  well  as  in  its  habits,  is  so  like 
the  whitethroat  as  to  be  often  confounded  with  it."* 
There  are  several  American  birds,  however,  much 
more  celebrated  as  mockers  or  imitators  than  this 
little  sedgebird.  We  shall  only  particularize  three, 
the  polyglot-chat,  the  blue-jay,  and  the  bird  univer- 
sally designated  the  mocking-bird. 


The  Polyglot-Chat. 

The  polyglot-chat  (Pipra  polyglotta,  WILSON)  was 
*  Edin.  Mag.,  Jan.,  1819,'  p.  10. 


IMITATION  AND  MIMICRY.       203 

first  observed  and  figured  by  Catesby,  who  discov- 
ered its  singular  manners  by  the  difficulty  he  had  in 
shooting  one.  He  observed  also  iLhat  it  is  no  less 
adroit  in  dancing  than  in  the  varied  modulations  of 
its  voice,  "it  is,"  says  Wilson,  in  a  highly  charac- 
teristic sketch,  "  a  very  singular  bird.  In  its  voice 
and  manners,  and  the  habit  it  has  of  keeping  con- 
cealed while  shifting  and  vociferating  around  you, 
it  differs  from  most  other  birds  with  which  I  am  ac- 
quainted, arid  has  considerable  claims  to  originality 
of  character.  It  arrives  in  Pennsylvania  about  the 
first  week  in  May,  its  term  of  residence  here  be- 
ing scarcely  four  months.  When  he  has  once  taken 
up  his  residence  in  a  favourite  situation,  which  is 
almost  always  in  close  thickets  of  hazel,  brambles, 
vines,  and  thick  underwood,  he  becomes  jealous  of 
his  possessions,  and  seems  oifended  at  the  least  in- 
trusion;  scolding  every  passenger  as  soon  as  they 
come  in  view,  in  a  great  variety  of  odd  and  uncouth 
monosyllables,  which  it  is  difficult  to  describe,  but 
which  may  be  readily  imitated  so  as  to  deceive  the 
bird  himself,  and  draw  him  after  you  for  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  at  a  time,  as  I  have  sometimes  amused 
myself  in  doing,  and  frequently  without  once  seeing 
him.  On  these  occasions  his  responses  are  con- 
stant and  rapid,  strongly  expressive  of  anger  and 
anxiety ;  and  while  the  bird  itself  remains  unseen, 
the  voice  shifts  from  place  to  place  among  the 
bushes,  as  if  it  proceeded  from  a  spirit.  First  are 
heard  a  repetition  of  short  notes,  resembling  the 
whistling  of  the  wings  of  a  duck  or  teal,  beginning 
loud  and  rapid,  and  falling  lower  and  slower  till 
they  end  in  detached  notes ;  then  a  succession  of 
others,  something  like  the  barking  of  young  pup- 
pies, is  followed  by  a  variety  of  hollow  guttural 
sounds,  each  eight  or  ten  times  repeated,  more 
like  those  proceeding  from  the  throat  of  a  quad- 
ruped than  that  of  a  bird ;  which  are  succeeded  by 
others  not  unlike  the  mewing  of  a  cat,  but  consid- 


204  HABITS    OF   BIRDS. 

erably  hoarser.  All  these  are  uttered  with  great 
vehemence,  in  such  different  keys,  and  with  such 
peculiar  modulations  of  voice,  as  sometimes  to 
seem  at  a  considerable  distance,  and  instantly  as  if 
just  beside  you ;  now  on  this  hand,  now  on  that ;  so 
that,  from  these  manoeuvres  of  ventriloquism,  you 
are  utterly  at  a  loss  to  ascertain  from  what  partic- 
ular spot  or  quarter  they  proceed.  If  the  weather 
be  mild  and  serene,  with  clear  moonlight,  he  con- 
tinues gabbling  in  the  same  strange  dialect,  with 
very  little  intermission,  during  the  whole  night,  as  if 
disputing  with  his  own  echoes,  but  probably  with 
a  design  of  inviting  the  passing  females  to  his  re- 
treat; for,  when  the  season  is  farther  advanced,  they 
are  seldom  heard  during  the  night. 

"  While  the  female  chat  is  sitting,  the  cries  of  the 
male  are  still  more  loud  and  incessant.  When  once 
aware  that  you  have  seen  him,  he  is  less  solicitous 
to  conceal  himself,  and  will  sometimes  mount  up 
into  the  air,  almost  perpendicularly,  to  the  height 
of  thirty  or  forty  feet,  with  his  legs  hanging ;  de- 
scending, as  he  rose,  by  repeated  jerks,  as  if  highly' 
irritated,  or,  as  is  vulgarly  said,  '  dancing  mad.' 
All  this  noise  and  gesticulation  we  must  attribute  to 
his  extreme  affection  for  his  mate  and  young ;  and 
when  we  consider  the  great  distance  which  in  all 
probability  he  comes,  the  few  young  produced  at  a 
time,  and  that  seldom  more  than  once  in  a  season, 
we  can  see  the  wisdom  of  Providence  very  mani- 
festly in  the  ardency  of  his  passions."* 

We  have  introduced  this  description  more  to  show 
the  variety  of  note  and  voice  which  actually  occurs 
in  a  bird,  than  as  exhibiting  an  instance  even  of  al- 
leged imitation ;  for  though  it  is  said  some  of  the 
sounds  uttered  by  the  polyglot-chat  are  "  something 
like  the  barking  of  young  puppies,"  and  "  others 
not  unlike  the  mewing  of  a  cat,"  it  is  not  averred, 

*  Am.  Ornith.,  i.,  92. 


IMITATION  AND  MIMICRY.       205 

as  it  is  in  the  case  of  the  bird  called  the  mocking- 
bird, that  these  sounds  are  derived  from  imitation. 

We  have  elsewhere  taken  notice  of  some  inter- 
esting peculiarities  in  the  American  blue-jay  (Gar- 
rulus  cristatus,  BRISSON),  and  shall  now  advert  to 
what  is  said  of  its  powers  of  imitation  and  mimicry. 
"  In  the  charming  season  of  spring,"  says  Wilson, 
"when  every  thicket  pours  forth  harmony,  the 
part  performed  by  the  jay  always  catches  the  ear. 
He  appears  to  be,  among  his  fellow-musicians,  what 
the  trumpeter  is  in  a  band,  some  of  his  notes  hav- 
ing no  distant  resemblance  to  the  tones  of  that  in- 
strument. Thus  he  has  the  faculty  of  changing 
through  a  great  variety  of  modulations,  according 
to  the  particular  humour  he  happens  to  be  in.  When 
disposed  for  ridicule,  there  is  scarce  a  bird  whose 
peculiarities  of  song  he  cannot  tune  his  notes  to. 
When  engaged  in  the  blandishments  of  love,  they 
resemble  the  soft  chatterings  of  a  duck,  and  while 
he  nestles  among  the  thick  branches  of  the  cedar, 
are  scarce  heard  at  a  few  paces  distance ;  but  no 
sooner  does  he  discover  your  approach,  than  he 
sets  up  a  sudden  and  vehement  cry,  flying  off,  and 
screaming  with  all  his  might,  as  if  he  called  the 
whole  feathered  tribes  of  the  neighbourhood  to 
witness  some  outrageous  usage  he  had  received. 
When  he  hops  undisturbed  among  the  high  branches 
of  the  oak  and  hickory,  they  become  soft  and  mu- 
sical ;  and  his  calls  of  the  female  a  stranger  would 
readily  mistake  for  the  repeated  creakings  of  an 
ungreased  wheelbarrow.  All  these  he  accompa- 
nies with  various  nods,  jerks,  and  other  gesticula- 
tions, for  which  the  whole  tribe  of  jays  are  so  re- 
-mark able. 

"He  is  not  only  bold  and  vociferous,  but  pos- 
sesses a  considerable  talent  for  mimicry,  and  seems 
to  enjoy  great  satisfaction  in  mocking  and  teasing 
other  birds,  particularly  the  little  hawk  (Falco  spar- 
verius),  imitating  his  cry  wherever  he  sees  him,  and 
S 


206  HABITS    OP    BIRDS. 

squealing  out  as  if  caught ;  this  soon  brings  a  num- 
ber of  his  own  tribe  around  him,  who  all  join  in  the 
frolic,  darting  about  the  hawk,  and  feigning  the  cries 
of  a  bird  sorely  wounded  and  already  under  the 
clutches  of  its  devourer ;  while  others  lie  concealed 
in  bushes  ready  to  second  their  associates  in  the 
attack.  But  this  ludicrous  farce  often  terminates 
tragically.  The  hawk,  singling  out  one  of  the  most 
insolent  and  provoking,  sweeps  upon  him  in  an  un- 
guarded moment,  and  offers  him  up  a  sacrifice  to 
his  hunger  and  resentment.  In  an  instant  the  tune 
is  changed  ;  all  their  buffoonery  vanishes,  and  loud 
and  incessant  screams  proclaim  disaster. 

"  Wherever  the  jay  has  had  the  advantage  of  ed- 
ucation from  man,  he  has  not  only  shown  himself 
an  apt  scholar,  but  his  suavity  of  manners  seems 
equalled  only  by  his  art  and  contrivances,  though  it 
must  be  confessed  that  his  itch  for  thieving  keeps 
pace  with  all  his  other  acquirements.  Dr.  Mease, 
on  the  authority  of  Colonel  Postell,  of  South  Caro- 
lina, informs  me  that  a  blue-jay,  which  was  brought 
up  in  the  family  of  the  latter  gentleman,  had  all  the 
tricks  and  loquacity  of  a  parrot,  pilfered  everything 
he  could  conveniently  carry  off,  and  hid  them  in 
holes  and  crevices,  answered  to  his  name  with 
great  sociability  when  called  on,  could  articulate  a 
number  of  words  pretty  distinctly,  and  when  he 
heard  any  uncommon  noise  or  loud  talking,  seemed 
impatient  to  contribute  his  share  to  the  general  fes- 
tivity (as  he  probably  thought  it)  by  a  display  of  all 
the  oratorical  powers  he  was  possessed  of."*  ' 

The  American  mocking-bird  attracted  the  notice 
of  the  earlier  voyagers  to  the  New  World  by  the 
variety  of  its  notes  and  the  extraordinary  compass 
and  fineness  of  its  voice,  and,  above,  all  by  its  appa- 
rent talent  of  mimicking  the  notes  and  cries  of  other 
birds  and  beasts.  According  also  to  Fernandez, 

*  Am.  Ornith.,  i.,  16. 


IMITATION  AND  MIMICRY.       207 

Nieremberg,  and  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  it  is  not  satisfied 
with  barely  re-echoing  the  sounds  imitated,  but 
gives  them  a  softness  and  grace  not  characteristic 
of  the  original,  for  which  reason  the  Mexicans 
termed  it  the  bird  of  four  hundred  tongues  (Cencon- 
tlatolli).  These  writers  also  mention  its  mingling 
action  with  its  song,  accompanying  the  notes  with 
measured  movements  expressive  of  successive 
emotions.  In  its  preluding,  it  rises  slowly  with  ex- 
panded wings,  sinking  back  to  the  same  spot,  with 
its  head  hanging  downward,  as  the  skylark  may 
sometimes  be  observed  to  do.  When  it  has  ad- 
vanced farther  in  the  performance,  it  ascends  and 
descends  on  the  wing  in  a  spiral  manner,  and  if  the 
notes  are  brisk  and  lively,  it  describes  in  the  air 
circles,  crossing  in  all  directions.  When  the  notes 
are  loud  and  rapid,  it  flaps  its  wings  with  propor- 
tional rapidity ;  and  when  the  notes  are  unequal  it 
bounds  and  flutters  in  unison ;  but  as  it  becomes 
apparently  tired  of  exertion,  its  tones  soften  by  de- 
grees, melt  into  tender  strains,  and  die  away  in  a 
pause  which  has  a  peculiarly  fine  effect,  while  at 
the  same  time  it  gradually  diminishes  its  action, 
glides  gently  and  smoothly  above  its  station  tree 
till  the  wavings  of  its  wings  become  imperceptible, 
and  finally  ceasing,  the  little  musician  remains  in 
the  air  suspended  and  motionless,  as  the  kestril 
(Falco  tinnunculus)  may  be  seen  to  do  when  it 
watches  for  prey. 

"  I  saw,  heard,  and  admired,"  says  Fernandez,  "  a 
small  bird  brought  to  Madrid,  the  queen  of  all  sing- 
ing birds  that  could  command  any  voice  or  tune. 
It  is  not  bigger  than  a  starling,  white  underneath, 
brown  above,  with  some  black  and  white  feathers 
intermixed,  especially  next  the  tail  and  about  the 
head,  which  is  encircled  with  the  likeness  of  a  sil- 
ver crown.  It  is  kept  in  cages  to  delight  the  ear, 
and  for  a  natural  rarity  or  rather  wonder.  It  ex- 
cels all  birds  in  sweetness  and  variety  of  song  and 


208  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

perfect  command  of  its  voice,  imitating  the  note  of 
any  sort  of  bird  whatsoever,  and  excelling  its  ex- 
emplar. It  goes  far  beyond  the  nightingale.  I  my- 
self kept  it  a  long  time." 

According  to  Goldsmith,  who  appears  to  speak 
from  private  information,  as  he  does  not  here,  as 
usual,  translate  nor  follow  Buffon,  the  mocking-bird 
"  is  possessed  not  only  of  its  own  natural  notes, 
which  are  musical  and  solemn,  but  it  can  assume 
the  tone  of  every  other  animal  in  the  wood,  from 
the  wolf  to  the  raven.  It  seems  even  to  sport  itself 
in  leading  them  astray.  It  will  at  one  time  allure 
the  lesser  birds  with  the  call  of  their  mates,  and 
then  terrify  them,  when  they  have  come  near,  with 
the  screams  of  the  eagle.  There  is  no  bird  in  the 
forest  but  it  can  mimic,  and  there  is  none  that  it  has 
not  at  times  deceived  by  its  call.  But,  not  like  such 
as  we  usually  see  tamed  for  mimicking  with  us,  and 
who  have  no  particular  merit  of  their  own,  the 
mockbird  is  ever  surest  to  please  when  it  is  most 
itself.  At  those  times  it  usually  frequents  the 
houses  of  the  American  planters;  and,  sitting  all 
night  on  the  chimney  top,  pours  forth  the  sweetest 
and  the  most  various  notes  of  any  bird  whatever." 

Pennant  assures  us  that  he  himself  heard  "  a 
caged  one"  in  England  "  imitate  the  mewing  of  a 
cat  and  the  creaking  of  a  sign  in  high  winds,"  and 
that  it  not  only  sang,  but  danced,  performing  a  great 
many  gesticulations.  He  farther  tells  us  that  it  im- 
itates the  notes  of  all  birds,  from  the  humming-bird 
to  the  eagle. 

Southey,  in  a  few  lines,  imbodies  nearly  all  that 
the  works  we  have  quoted  contain  respecting  this 
bird,  which  he  calls 

"  That  cheerful  one,  who  knpweth  all 
The  songs  of  all  the  winged  choristers  ; 
And,  in  one  sequence  of  melodious  sounds, 
Pours  all  their  music." 


IMITATION  AND  MIMICRY.       209 

He  adds  in  a  note,  that  "a  negress  was  once 
heard  to  exclaim, '  Please  God  Almighty,  how  sweet 
that  mocking-bird  sing  !  he  never  tire  !'  By  day  and 
night  he  sings  alike;  when  weary  of  mocking  oth- 
ers, the  bird  takes  up  its  own  natural  strain,  and  so 
joyous  a  creature  is  it,  that  it  will  jump  and  dance 
to  its  own  music." 

By  far  the  most  circumstantial  account,  however, 
of  this  wonderful  bird  is  given  by  Wilson  in  a  char- 
acteristically graphic  passage.  "  This  celebrated 
and  very  extraordinary  bird,"  he  says,  "  in  extent 
and  variety  of  vocal  powers,  stands  unrivalled  by 
the  whole  feathered  songsters  of  this  or  perhaps 
any  other  country ;  and  shall  receive  from  us  all 
that  attention  and  respect  which  superior  merit  is 
justly  entitled  to.  The  plumage  of  the  mocking-bird, 
though  none  of  the  homeliest,  has  nothing  gaudy  or 
brilliant  in  it ;  and,  had  he  nothing  else  to  recom- 
mend him,  would  scarcely  entitle  him  to  notice; 
but  his  figure  is  well  proportioned,  and  even  hand- 
some. The  ease,  elegance,  and  rapidity  of  his 
movements,  the  animation  of  his  eye,  and  the  intel- 
ligence he  displays  in  listening  and  laying  up  les- 
sons from  almost  every  species  of  the  feathered 
creation  within  his  hearing,  are  really  surprising, 
and  mark  the  peculiarity  of  his  genius.  To  these 
qualities  we  may  add  that  of  a  voice  full,  strong, 
and  musical,  and  capable  of  almost  every  modula- 
tion, from  the  clear  mellow  tones  of  the  wood- 
thrush,  to  the  savage  scream  of  the  bald  eagle.  In 
measure  and  accent  he  faithfully  follows  his  origi- 
nals ;  in  force  and  sweetness  of  expression  he 
greatly  improves  upon  them.  In  his  native  groves, 
mounted  on  the  top  of  a  tall  bush  or  half-grown 
tree,  in  the  dawn  of  the  dewy  morning,  while  the 
woods  are  already  vocal  with  a  multitude  of  war- 
blers, his  admirable  song  rises  pre-eminent  over 
every  competitor.  The  ear  can  listen  to  his  music 
alone,  to  which  that  of  all  the  others  seems  a  mere 
S2 


210  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 

accompaniment.  Neither  is  his  strain  altogether 
imitative.  His  own  native  notes,  which  are  easily 
distinguishable  by  such  as  are  well  acquainted  with 
those  of  our  various  song-birds,  are  bold  and  full, 
and  varied  seemingly  beyond  all  limits.  They  con- 
sist of  short  expressions  of  two,  three,  or,  at  the 
most,  five  or  six  syllables,  generally  interspersed 
with  imitations,  and  all  of  them  uttered  with  great 
emphasis  and  rapidity ;  and  continued,  with  undi- 
minished  ardour,  for  half  an  hour  or  an  hour  at  a 
time.  His  expanded  wings  and  tail,  glistening  with 
white,  and  the  buoyant  gayety  of  his  action,  arrest- 
ing the  eye,  as  his  song  irresistibly  does  the  ear. 
He  sweeps  round  with  enthusiastic  ecstasy;  he 
mounts  and  descends  as  his  song  swells  or  dies 
away ;  and  as  my  friend  Mr.  Bartram  has  beauti- 
fully expressed  it, '  He  bounds  aloft  with  the  celer- 
ity of  an  arrow,  as  if  to  recover  or  recall  his  very 
soul,  expired  in  the  last  elevated  strain.'  While 
thus  exerting  himself,  a  bystander,  destitute  of  sight, 
would  suppose  that  the  whole  feathered  tribe  had 
assembled  together  on  a  trial  of  skill,  each  striving 
to  produce  his  utmost  effect,  so  perfect  are  his 
imitations.  He  many  times  deceives  the  sports- 
man, and  sends  him  in  search  of  birds  that  perhaps 
are  not  within  miles  of  him,  but  whose  notes  he 
exactly  imitates  :  even  birds  themselves  are  fre- 
quently imposed  on  by  this  admirable  mimic,  and 
are  decoyed  by  the  fancied  calls  of  their  mates,  or 
dive  with  precipitation  into  the  depth  of  thickets,  at 
the  scream  of  what  they  suppose  to  be  the  sparrow- 
hawk. 

"  The  mocking-bird  loses  little  of  the  power  and 
energy  of  his  song  by  confinement.  In  his  domes- 
ticated state,  when  he  commences  his  career  of 
song,  it  is  impossible  to  stand  by  uninterested.  He 
whistles  for  the  dog  ;  Caesar  starts  up,  wags  his  tail, 
and  runs  to  meet  his  master.  He  squeaks  out  like 
a  hurt  chicken,  and  the  hen  hurries  about  with  hang- 


IMITATION  AND  MIMICRY.       211 

ing  wings  and  bristled  feathers,  clucking  to  protect 
its  injured  brood.  The  barking  of  the  dog,  the 
mewing  of  the  cat,  the  creaking  of  a  passing  wheel- 
barrow, follow  with  great  truth  and  rapidity.  He 
repeats  the  tune  taught  him  by  his  master,  though 
of  considerable  length,  fully  and  faithfully.  He 
runs  over  the  quaverings  of  the  canary,  and  the 
clear  whistlings  of  the  Virginia  nightingale  or  red- 
bird,  with  such  superior  execution  and  effect,  that 
the  mortified  songsters  feel  their  own  inferiority, 
and  become  altogether  silent ;  while  he  seems  to 
triumph  in  their  defeat  by  redoubling  his  exertions. 
"  This  excessive  fondness  for  variety,  however, 
in  the  opinion  of  some,  injures  his  song.  His  ele- 
vated imitations  of  the  brown-thrush  are  frequently 
interrupted  by  the  crowing  of  cocks  ;  and  the  war- 
blings  of  the  bluebird,  which  he  exquisitely  man- 
ages, are  mingled  with  the  screaming  of  swallows 
or  the  cackling  of  hens ;  amid  the  simple  melody 
of  the  robin  we  are  suddenly  surprised  by  the  shrill 
reiterations  of  the  whip-poor-will ;  while  the  notes 
of  the  kildeer,  the  blue-jay,  martin,  Baltimore,  and 
twenty  others,  succeed,  with  such  imposing  reality, 
that  we  look  round  for  the  originals,  and  discover, 
with  astonishment,  that  the  sole  performer  in  this 
singular  concert  is  the  admirable  bird  now  before  us. 
During  this  exhibition  of  his  powers,  he  spreads 
his  wings,  expands  his  tail,  and  throws  himself 
around  the  cage  in  all  the  ecstasy  of  enthusiasm, 
seeming  not  only  to  sing,  but  to  dance,  keeping 
time  to  the  measure  of  his  own  music.  Both  in  his 
native  and  domesticated  state,  during  the  solemn 
stillness  of  night,  as  soon  as  the  moon  rises  in  silent 
majesty,  he  begins  his  delightful  solo ;  and  sere- 
nades us  the  livelong  night  with  a  full  display  of  his 
vocal  powers,  making  the  whole  neighbourhood 
ring  with  his  inimitable  medley."* 

*  Amer.  Ornith.,  ii.,  19. 


212  HABITS    OP  BIRDS. 

It  is  rather  a  curious  circumstance,  character- 
izing, it  would  appear,  the  mocking-bird,  as  well  as 
our  European  birds,  that  the  species  distinguished 
for  singing  seldom  learn  to  imitate  human  speech; 
while  those  which  do  not  sing,  such  as  the  jay,  the 
magpie,  and  the  parrot,  are  well  known  as  success- 
ful imitators. 

The  gray  parrot  (Psittacus  erithacus)  which  be- 
longed to  Colonel  O'Kelly  "  not  only,"  says  Bing- 
ley,  "repeated  a  great  number  of  sentences,  but 
answered  many  questions  :  it  was  also  able  to 
whistle  many  tunes.  It  beat  time  with  all  the  ap- 
pearance of  science  ;  and  so  accurate  was  its  judg- 
ment, that  if  by  chance  it  mistook  a  note,  it  would 
revert  to  the  bar  where  the  mistake  was  made,  cor- 
rect itself,  and,  still  beating  regular  time,  go  through 
the  whole  with  wonderful  exactness.  Its  death 
was  thus  announced  in  the  General  Evening  Post 
for  the  9th  of  October,  1802  :  *  A  few  days  ago  died, 
in  Half  Moon-street,  Piccadilly,  the  celebrated  par- 
rot of  Colonel  O'Kelly.  This  singular  bird  sang  a 
number  of  songs  in  perfect  time  and  tune  ;  she 
could  express  her  wants  articulately,  and  give  her 
orders  in  a  manner  approaching  nearly  to  rationali- 
ty. Her  age  was  not  known ;  it  was,  however, 
more  than  thirty  years,  for  previously  to  that  pe- 
riod Mr.  O'Kelly  bought  her  at  Bristol  for  a  hun- 
dred guineas.  The  colonel  was  repeatedly  offered 
five  hundred  guineas  a  year  for  the  bird,  by  persons 
who  wished  to  make  a  public  exhibition  of  her ;  but 
this,  out  of  tenderness  to  the  favourite,  he  constant- 
ly refused." 

There  are  many  persons  now  alive  who  have 
witnessed  these  scarcely  credible  performances. 
Among  these,  the  Rev.  W.  H.  Herbert  says  :  "  That 
wonderful  bird,  Colonel  O'Kelly's  parrot,  which  I 
had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  and  hearing  (about 
the  year  1799,  if  I  recollect  rightly),  beat  the  time 
always  with  his  foot,  turning  round  upon  the  perch 


IMITATION   AND    MIMICRY.  213 

\vhile  singing,  and  marking  the  time  as  it  turned. 
This  extraordinary  creature  sang  perfectly  about 
fifty  different  tunes  of  every  kind,  '  God  save  the 
King,'  solemn  psalms,  and  humorous  or  low  ballads, 
of  which  it  articulated  every  word  as  distinctly  as 
a  man  could  do,  without  even  making  a  mistake. 
If  a  bystander  sang  any  part  of  the  song,  it  would 

Eause  and  take  up  the  song  where  the  person  had 
3ft  off  without  repeating  what  he  had  said.  When 
moulting  and  unwilling  to  sing,  it  would  answer  all 
solicitations  by  turning  its  back  and  repeatedly  say- 
ing, '  Poll's  sick.'  I  am  persuaded  that  its  instructer 
had  taught  it  to  beat  time."* 

It  would  be  easy  to  fill  a  volume  with  anecdotes 
of  parrots  and  other  speaking  birds,  though  many 
of  them  are  evidently  much  over-coloured.  We 
shall  only  add  one  more,  on  the  respectable  authority 
of  Mr.  Syme,  ivho  tells  us  he  "  went  one  morning, 
with  a  friend,  to  see  a  collection  of  birds  belong- 
ing to  a  gentleman  in  Antigua-street,  Edinburgh,  and 
among  these  were  some  very  fine  starlings  ;  one,  in 
particular,  which  cost  five  guineas.  Breakfast  was 
ready  before  we  entered  the  room.  When  the  bird 
was  produced,  it  flew  to  its  master's  hand,  and  dis- 
tinctly pronounced,  '  Good-morning,  sir — breakfast 
— breakfast.'  It  afterward  hopped  to  the  table,  ex- 
amined every  cup,  and,  while  thus  employed,  it  oc- 
casionally repeated,  '  Breakfast — breakfast — bread 
and  butter  for  Jack — tea,  tea — bread  for  Jack — 
pretty  Jack — pretty  Jack.'  One  thing  we  observed 
was  this  :  it  often  said  the  same  word  or  sentence 
twice  over,  perhaps  in  imitation  of  the  person  by 
whom  it  had  been  taught."* 

*  Notes  to  White's  Selborne,  8vo.  edit.,  1832. 
t  British  Song  Birds,  p.  63. 


214  HABITS    OF    BIRDS. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

LONGEVITY    OF   BIRDS. 

IT  is,  as  well  remarked  by  Mr.  Knapp,  "  difficult, 
from  many  circumstances,  to  form  an  accurate  state- 
ment of  the  natural  duration  of  animal  life,  the  wild 
creatures  being,  in  great  measure,  removed  from 
observation,  and  those  in  a  condition  of  domestica- 
tion being  seldom  permitted  to  live  as  long  as  their 
bodily  strength  would  allow.  It  was  formerly  sup- 
posed that  the  length  of  animal  life  was  in  propor- 
tion to  the  space  it  remained  in  the  parent,  from 
conception  to  birth,  and  the  length  "of  time  it  re- 
quired to  obtain  maturity.  This  notion  might  have 
some  support  in  reason  and  fact  occasionally,  but  in 
many  cases  was  incorrect ;  and,  in  regard  to  birds, 
had  no  foundation.  Herbivorous  animals  probably 
live  longer  than  carnivorous  ones,  vegetable  food 
being  most  easily  obtainable  in  all  seasons,  in  a 
regular  and  requisite  supply ;  whereas  animals  that 
subsist  on  flesh,  or  by  the  capture  of  prey,  are  ne- 
cessitated at  one  period  to  pine  without  food,  and  at 
another  gorged  with  superfluity  :  and,  when  the  bod- 
ily powers  of  rapacious  creatures  become  impaired, 
existence  is  difficult  to  support,  and  gradually  cea- 
ses ;  but  with  herbivorous  animals  in  the  same  con- 
dition, supply  is  not  equally  precarious  or  wholly 
denied.  Yet  it  is  probable  that  few  animals,  in  a 
perfectly  wild  state,  live  to  a  natural  extinction  of 
life.  In  a  state  of  domestication,  the  small  number 
of  carnivorous  creatures  about  us  are  sheltered  and 
fed  with  care,  seldom  are  in  want  of  proper  food, 
and  at  times  are  permitted  to  await  a  gradual  de- 
cay, continuing  as  long  as  nature  permits,  and  by 


LONGEVITY.  215 

such  attentions  many  have  attained  to  a  great  age ; 
but  this  is  rather  an  artificial  than  a  natural  exist- 
ence. Our  herbivorous  animals,  being  kept  mostly 
for  profit,  are  seldom  allowed  to  remain  beyond  ap- 
proaching age;  and  when  its  advances  trench  upon 
our  emoluments  by  diminishing  the  supply  of  utility, 
we  remove  them.  The  uses  of  the  horse,  though 
time  may  reduce  them, -are  often  protracted;  and 
our  gratitude  for  past  services,  or  interest  in  what 
remains,  prompts  us  to  support  his  life  by  prepared 
food,  for  easy  digestion,  or  requiring  little  mastica- 
tion ;  and  he  certainly  by  such  means  attains  to  a 
longevity  probably  beyond  the  contingencies  of  na- 
ture. I  have  still  a  favourite  pony — for  she  has 
been  a  faithful  and  able  performer  of  all  the  duties 
required  of  her  in  my  service  for  upward  of  two- 
and-twenty  years — and,  though  now  above  five-and- 
twenty  years  of  age,  retains  all  her  powers  per- 
fectly, without  any  diminution  or  symptom  of  de- 
crepitude ;  the-  fineness  of  limb,  brilliancy  of  eye, 
and  ardour  of  spirit,  are  those  of  the  colt ;  and, 
though  treated  with  no  remarkable  care,  she  has 
never  been  disabled  by  the  illness  of  a  day,  or  sick- 
ened by  the  drench  of  the  farrier.  With  birds  it  is 
probably  the  same  as  with  other  creatures ;  and  the 
eagle,  raven,  parrot,  &c.,  in  a  domestic  state  attain 
great  longevity  ;  and  though  we  suppose  them  natu- 
rally tenacious  of  life,  yet,  in  a  really  wild  state, 
they  would  expire  before  the  period  which  they  at- 
tain when  under  our  attention  and  care.  And  this 
is  much  the  case  with  man,  who  probably  outlives 
most  other  creatures  ;  for  though  excess  may  often 
shorten,  and  disease  or  misfortune  terminate  his 
days,  yet  naturally  he  is  a  long-lived  animal.  His 
*  threescore  years  and  ten'  are  often  prolonged  by 
constitutional  strength,  and  by  the  cares,  the  loves, 
the  charities  of  human  nature.  As  the  decay  of  his 
powers  awakens  solicitude,  duty  and  affection  in- 


216  HABITS  OF    BIRDS. 

crease  their  attentions,  and  the  spark  of  life  only 
expires  when  the  material  is  exhausted."* 

The  birds  most  celebrated  for  longevity  are  the 
raven,  the  pelican,  and  the  eagle,  though  the  evi- 
dence which  we  have  met  with,  in  proof  of  the  com- 
mon opinion  respecting  the  long  life  of  these  birds, 
is  not  always  so  satisfactory  as  we  could  wish.  To 
these  may  be  added  the  skylark,  which  has  been 
known  to  live  in  a  cage,  as  Olina  says,  ten  years ; 
while  Raczynski  mentions  an  instance  in  which  one 
lived  twenty-four  years. 

In  his  chapter  on  "  The  Longest  Lives,"  Pliny 
says,  "  Hesiod  (the  first  writer,  as  I  take  it,  who 
hath  treated  of  this  argument,  and  yet  like  a  poet), 
in  his  fabulous  discourse  touching  the  age  of  man, 
said,  forsooth,  that  a  crow  lives  nine  limes  as  long 
as  we ;  and  harts  or  stags  four  times  as  long  as 
he,  but  ravens  thrice  as  long  as  they."  If  we 
estimate  accordingly  a  generation  at  thirty  years, 
the  age  of  the  crow  would  be  270  years,  that  of  the 
stag  1080  years,  and  that  of  the  raven  3240  years ; 
but  if  we  interpret  the  terms  used  by  both  Hesiod 
and  Pliny  to  signify  a  year,  we  should  then  have  the 
life  of  the  crow  nine  years,  and  of  the  raven  108, 
which  is  probably  nearer  the  truth. 

"  No  person,  as  far  as  I  know,"  says  Montbeil- 
lard,  "  has  determined  the  age  at  which  the  young 
ravens  have  acquired  their  full  growth  and  are  ca- 
pable of  propagating.  If  in  birds,  as  in  quadru- 
peds, each  period  of  life  was  proportional  to  the 
total  space  of  existence,  we  might  suppose  that  the 
crows  required  many  years  to  reach  their  adult  state, 
though  it  seems  well  ascertained  that  this  bird 
sometimes  lives  a  century  or  more.  In  many  cities 
of  France  they  have  been  known  to  attain  to  that 
distant  period ;  and  in  all  countries  and  all  ages 
they  have  been  reckoned  as  birds  extremely  long- 

*  Journ.  of  a  Nat.,  p.  181,  1st  edit. 


LONGEVITY.  217 

lived.  But  the  progress  to  maturity  must  be  slow 
in  this  species,  compared  to  the  duration  of  their 
life  ;  for  towards  the  end  of  the  first  summer,  when 
all  the  family  consort  together,  it  is  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish the  old  from  the  young,  and  very  probably 
they  are  capable  of  breeding  the  second  year." 

Pigeons  are  reported  to  have  lived  from  twenty  to 
twenty-two  years  ;  and  even  linnets,  goldfinches, 
and  other  small  birds,  have  been  known  to  live  from 
fifteen  to  twenty-three  years. 

Willoughby  says,  "  We  have  been  assured  by  a 
friend  of  ours,  a  person  of  very  good  credit,  that  his 
father  kept,  a  goose,  known  to  be  fourscore  years 
of  age,  and  as  yet  sound  and  lusty,  and  like  enough 
to  have  lived  many  years  longer,  had  he  not  been 
forced  to  kill  her  for  mischievousness,  worrying 
and  destroying  the  young  geese  and  goslins."  In 
another  part  of  his  valuable  work,  this  writer  tells 
us,  "  that  he  has  been  assured  by  credible  persons, 
that  a  goose  will  live  a  hundred  years  and  more." 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  pelican  derives  its 
great  longevity  from  the  peculiar  texture  of  its 
bones,  which  are  thin,  almost  transparent,  and  ex- 
ceedingly light.  Even  in  captivity  it  has  been  ob- 
served to  be  more  tenacious  of  life  than  most  other 
birds.  "  Of  a  great  number  of  pelicans  kept  in  the 
menagerie  at  Versailles,  none  died  in  the  space  of 
twelve  years  ;  yet  during  that  time  some  of  almost 
every  other  species  of  animals  died.'* 

It  was  reported,  as  Aldrovand  has  stated,  by  per- 
sons worthy  of  credit,  that  a  pelican,  eighty  years 
of  age  (octogenariam),  was  kept  by  the  emperor 
Maximilian,  and  was  held  as  a  sort  of  auspicator  in 
his  camp.  It  was  supposed  to  have  been  hatched 
in  the  time  of  Philip  the  emperor's  father.  It  was 
afterward  kept  for  a  long  time  at  the  court  of  the 
empress,  after  it  was  no  longer  able,  through  old 
age,  to  use  its  wings,  the  expense  of  keeping  it  be- 
ing four  crowns  a  day.  Turner  mentions  one  which 
T 


218  HABITS  OF  BIRDS. 

lived  fifty  years ;  and  Raczynski  another,  kept  at  the 
court  of  Bavaria  for  forty  years. 

"  Eagles,"  says  Pennant,  "  are  remarkable  for 
their  longevity,  and  for  their  power  of  sustaining  a 
long  abstinence  from  food.  A  golden  engle,  which 
has  now  been  nine  years  in  the  possession  of  Owen 
Holland,  Esq.,  of  Conway,  lived  thirty-two  years 
with  the  gentleman  who  made  him  a  present  of  it ; 
but  what  its  age  was  when  the  latter  received  it 
from  Ireland  is  unknown.  The  same  bird  also  fur- 
nishes a  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  other  remark, 
having  once,  through  the  neglect  of  servants,  en- 
dured hunger  for  twenty-one  days,  without  any  sus- 
tenance whatsoever." 

The  great  age  of  the  eagle  is  beautifully  alluded 
to  in  the  Psalms,  where  if  is  said  of  the  righteous 
man  that  "his  youth  is  renewed  like  the  eagle's,"  a 
passage  which  greatly  exercised  the  ingenuity  of 
the  ancient  fathers  and  other  commentators  in  fan- 
cying the  manner  in  which  the  eagle  did  renew  its 
youth.  The  greater  number  of  them,  and  among 
these,  St.  Jerome,  St.  Ambrose,  St.  Gregory,  Ni- 
cephorus,  and  Rabbi  David,  say  that  when  the  bird 
begins  to  feel  advancing  age  from  the  weight  of  its 
feathers  and  the  dimness  of  its  eyes,  it  betakes  it- 
self to  a  fountain  of  water,  and,  plunging  therein,  has 
its  whole  frame  renovated.  St.  Damian  adds,  that 
before  immersion,  it  so  places  itself  in  the  focus 
of  the  sun's  rays  (ad  circulum  solis)  as  to  set  its 
wings  on  fire,  and  in  this  way  to  consume  the  old 
feathers;  proving  pretty  plainly  that  St.  Damian 
was  not  aware  of  the  natural  mode  of  birds  renew- 
ing their  feathers  by  moulting.  Rabbi  David  adds, 
that  when  it  delays  the  operation  too  long  it  has  not 
strength  to  rise  from  the  water,  and  is  frequently 
drowned. 

St.  Augustine  says,  that  when  the  eagle  becomes 
very  oldf  the  upper  mandible  of  the  beak  grows  so 
Jong  that  the  bird  can  no  longer  feed,  in  which  case 


LONGEVITY.  219 

it  betakes  itself  to  a  rock  or  rough  stone,  and  rubs 
its  beak  till  the  overgrown  part  is  ground  down  into 
proper  proportion. 

Albertus  Magnus  gives  a  still  more  ingenious  pro- 
cess of  renewal,  not,  however,  of  his  own  inven- 
tion, but  quoted  from  Jorachus  and  Andelinus,  whose 
works,  we  presume,  are  now  lost.  "They  say," 
reports  Albertus,  "  that  an  old  eagle  at  the  period 
the  young  ones  are  fledged,  as  soon  as  she  has  dis- 
covered a  clear  and  copious  spring,  flies  directly 
upward,  even  to  the  third  region  of  the  air,  which 
we  term  the  region  of  meteors,  and  when  she  feels 
warm,  so  as  to  be  almost  burning,  suddenly  dash- 
ing down  and  keeping  her  wings  drawn  back,  she 
plunges  into  the  cold  water,  which,  by  the  astringing 
of  the  external  cold,  increases  the  internal  heat. 
She  then  rises  from  the  water,  flies  to  her  nest,  and 
nestling  under  the  wings  of  her  warm  young  ones, 
melts  into  perspiration,  and  thence  with  her  old 
feathers  she  puts  off  her  old  age,  and  is  clothed 
afresh;  but  while  she  undergoes  this  renovation, 
she  makes  prey  of  her  young  for  food.  But  I  can 
only,"  he  adds,  "  consider  this  as  a  miraculous  oc- 
currence, since  in  two  eagles  which  I  kept  I  ob- 
served no  changes  of  this  sort ;  for  they  were  tame 
and  docile,  and  moulted  in  the  same  manner  as 
other  birds  of  prey." 

It  is  very  obvious  that  all  these  are  mere  fancies, 
and  farther,  that  there  are  few  or  no  data  by  which 
to  determine  the  age  of  wild  birds.  We  have,  in- 
deed, observed  among  house-sparrows  individual 
cockbirds,  in  which  the  black  markings  were  inter- 
mixed with  white  feathers:  but  whether  this  was 
the  hoariness  of  age,  or  merely  an  accidental  va- 
riety of  colour,  we  had  no  means  of  ascertaining. 
It  has  been  long  decided  that  the  grayheaded  crow 
is  not  an  old  carrion  crow  grown  hoary  with  age  as 
is  popularly  believed ;  but  a  different  species  (Cor- 
vus  comix). 


THE 


FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

VISION  OF  BIRDS. 

THE  animals  most  celebrated  for  piercing  sight 
are  the  eagle  and  the  lynx ;  but  if  the  acute  vision 
of  the  eagle  rested  on  no  better  authority  than  that 
of  the  lynx,  we  should  not  be  disposed  to  rely  on 
its  accuracy,  though  old  Aldrovand  says  that  "  no- 
body of  sound  mind  will  deny  the  lynx  to  be  the 
clearest  sighted  of  all  quadrupeds,  since  all  natural- 
ists are  agreed  upon  the  point."  There  can  be  lit- 
tle doubt,  however,  that  the  agreement  thus  quoted 
as  an  authority  sprung  from  reading  and  copying 
rather  than  from  observation ;  or,  perhaps,  as  Ges- 
ner  seems  to  think,  from  the  similarity  of  the  name 
to  Lynceus,  whom  the  poets  fable  to  have  been 
able  to  look  through  trees,  walls,  and  rocks,  and 
even,  if  we  credit  Apollonius,  to  see  into  the  very 
bowels  of  the  earth.  Observation  proves  that  the 
sight  of  the  lynx  (Felis  cervaria,  TEMMINCK,  and  F. 
Lynx,  LINN.)  is  similar,  and  little,  if  at  all,  superior 
to  that  of  the  cat  or  the  tiger ;  and,  as  it  pursues 
its  prey  in  the  night,  its  eyes,  though  in  appearance 
"  brilliant,"  as  Buffon  correctly  says,  are  ill  fitted 
for  vision  except  during  twilight. 

The  proverbial  piercing  sight  of  the  eagle  rests 
upon  very  different  evidence  from  that  of  these  fa- 
T2 


222  FACULTIES    OP   BIRDS. 

bles.  Systematic  writers  afford  little  information 
on  the  subject ;  but  we  have  abundant  proof  of  this 
intensity  of  vision  from  other  sources.  We  may, 
however,  reasonably  doubt  the  fact  of  its  fixing  its 
gaze  upon  the  sun,  the  "  naked  sun,"  as  Petrarch 
gives  it,  even  though  the  authority  of  Scaliger  tells 
us  that  having  "  repeatedly  placed  an  eagle  in  the 
sun,  it  gazed  on  its  rays  for  a  long  time  intensely 
and  pertinaciously."  It  does  not  appear  what  mo- 
tive can  induce  the  bird  to  gaze  on  the  sun,  even  if 
it  have  the  power.  Larks,  indeed,  and  some  other 
small  birds,  are  attracted  by  bright  objects,  as  is 
proved  by  what  birdcatchers  call  daring,  that  is,  fix- 
ing a  piece  of  looking-glass  on  a  moveable  pivot 
and  whirling  it  round ;  but  in  this  case  it  is  probable 
the  larks  are  allured  by  the  principle  of  curiosity  so 
very  lively  in  birds.  On  the  general  physiological 
principle,  also,  that  the  more  stimulus  an  organ  can 
bear  the  less  sensible  it  must  be,  we  may  conclude 
that  the  two  circumstances  of  piercing  sight  and  ca- 
pability to  gaze  on  the  sun  are  incompatible.  Ac- 
cordingly, we  find  that  animals  which  prey  in  the 
night,  and  white  animals  with  red  eyes  (albinos), 
while  they  can  see  with  a  faint  glimmer  of  light 
on  account  of  their  extreme  sensibility  of  vision, 
are  so  overpowered  by  the  glare  of  the  sun's  light 
that  they  can  scarcely  see  at  all. 

There  is,  indeed,  a  peculiarity  in  the  eyes  not  only 
of  the  eagle,  but  of  all  birds,  tending  to  defend  them 
from  too  strong  light,  to  which  it  may  be  interest- 
ing to  advert.  In  the  eye  of  man  and  many  other 
animals,  including  birds,  a  beautiful  provision  is 
made  for  supplying  it  with  the  moisture  which  is 
indispensable  to  render  its  restless  motions  easy. 
For  this  purpose  a  fountain  or  gland,  situated  in  man 
within  the  upper  and  outer  part  of  the  bony  socket, 
affords  a  constant  supply  of  tears,  about  three  or 
four  ounces  of  which  it  has  been  computed  are 
discharged  upon  the  human  eyeball  every  twenty- 


VISION.  223 

four  hours.  Besides  this,  there  is  an  ointment  pre- 
pared in  the  beautiful  little  glands,  about  thirty  in 
number,  interspersed  within  the  fine  skin  of  the  in- 
ner eyelid  near  to  the  roots  of  the  eyelashes,  ap- 
pearing when  magnified  like  studs  of  minute  pearls. 
This  ointment,  which,  according  to  M.  Magendie,  is 
of  a  glairy  consistence,  like  white  of  egg,  is  dis- 
solved and  diluted  by  the  tears,  and  the  whole  is 
constantly  spread  over  the  eyeball  by  the  sweep  of 
the  eyelids,  which  act  like  valves,  and  are  compo- 
sed of  semi-transparent  muscular  substance,  attach- 
ed to  a  ring  of  gristle  or  cartilage,  which  is  hinged 
on  the  adjacent  bone,  and  gives  the  eyelids  firm- 
ness and  preserves  their  shape.  Our  eyes  are,  be- 
sides, elegantly  fringed  with  short  hairs,  either  to 
defend  the  eye  with  a  gratework  from  anything 
falling  into  it,  or  to  perform  some  unknown  opera- 
tion on  light.  The  use  of  the  eyelids  is  strikingly 
demonstrated  from  what  takes  place  when  they  are 
cut  off,  a  savage  punishment  sometimes  practised 
in  barbarous  countries.  This  prevents  sleep,  and, 
from  the  constant  irritation  of  the  light,  the  eyes 
inflame,  the  inflammation  spreads  to  the  brain,  and 
the  victim  of  torture  expires  in  the  most  dreadful 
agony. 

Birds  differ  considerably  from  other  animals  with 
respect  to  the  eyelids,  which  are  indeed  formed 
horizontally  and  very  distinct ;  but  the  under  lid  is 
in  most  birds  much  larger  and  more  moveable  than 
the  upper,  as  was  observed  by  Aristotle,  in  many 
cases  forming  on  the  inner  surface  a  smooth,  pol- 
ished plate  (lamina). 

The  part,  however,  which  we  have  more  particu- 
larly alluded  to,  we  may  with  some  propriety  call 
the  eyebrush  (membrana  nictitans).  In  our  own 
eye  we  may  examine  this  eyebrush  at  a  looking-- 
glass by  turning  the  eye  away  as  far  as  possible 
from  the  nose.  It  is  a  little  red  fleshy  membrane, 
in  form  of  a  crescent,  which  in  such  a  position  of 


224  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

the  eye  is  spread  over  its  inner  angle,  and  when 
any  dust  has  fallen  upon  the  ball,  it  sticks  to  this 
and  is  carried  into  the  corner  of  the  eye  by  the 
membrane  folding  back.  In  birds,  again,  this  eye- 
brush  is  much  more  extended,  and  is  spread  over 
the  whole  eye  by  means  of  two  muscles,  one  form- 
ing a  tendinous  cylindrical  canal,  the  other  passing 
through  this  and  working  like  a  cord  in  a  pulley. 
The  membrane  being  translucent,  when  it  is  drawn 
ove*-  the  eye  like  a  curtain  it  is  well  calculated  to 
prevent  it  from  being  dazzled  by  too  much  light.  It 
is  evidently,  however,  a  mere  conjecture  that  it  is  by 
means  of  this  membrane  the  eagle  can  look  at  the 
sun ;  for  we  do  not  see  how  it  could  be  proved  by 
experiment,  as  it  would  be  impossible  to  perceive 
through  it  the  direction  of  the  pupil.  Aristotle  was 
of  opinion  it  was  for  the  purpose  of  moistening  the 
eye ;  but  Aldrovand  thinks  we  cannot  well  draw 
such  an  inference,  as  our  own  eye  is  kept  suffi- 
ciently moist  without  such  a  provision. 

Willpughby  describes  the  eye  of  the  golden  eagle 
as  having  "  a  certain  thick  tunicle  stretched  forth 
from  below  upward,  covering  the  globe  in  nicta- 
tion. Two  eyelids,  one  above,  the  other  beneath, 
although  the  lower  alone  extending  upward  is  suf- 
ficient to  cover  the  whole  eye.  The  region  of  the 
eyebrows  is  very  eminent,  like  that  prominent  part 
of  houses  called  the  eaves,  under  which  the  eyes 
lie  hidden,  as  it  were,  in  a  deep  cavity.  The  eyes 
are  of  a  green  colour  (chlorops)  of  a  fiery  splendour, 
shining  forth  in  a  pale  blue.  The  pupil  is  of  a 
deep  black.  It  is  very  admirable  to  observe  what 
care  nature  hath  taken,  and  what  provision  she 
hath  made  for  the  conservation  of  the  eyes,  than 
which  there  is  no  part  in  this  animal  more  excel- 
lent ;  for  not  being  content  with  one  tegument,  as 
is  usual  in  other  animals,  she  seemeth  to  have 
framed  four  several  lids  or  covers  for  them.  The 
membrane  for  nictation  is  the  same  thing,  and  af- 


VISION.  225 

fords  the  same  use  to  them  that  the  eyelids  do  to 
man.  Besides  which  nature  hath  superadded  two 
other  eyelids,  and  of  these  the  lower  so  large  that 
they  alone  suffice  to  cover  and  preserve  the  eye."* 

Willoughby  thinks  it  "  partly  false  or  uncertain," 
that  the  golden  eagle  "  doth  so  excel  in  quick-sight- 
edness,  soaring  so  high  in  the  air  that  she  can  very 
hardly  be  discerned  by  us  in  all  that  light,  yet  she 
can  espy  a  hare  lying  under  a  bush,  or  a  little  fish 
swimming  in  the  water ;  though  I  grant,"  he  adds, 
"  that  both  the  eagle  and  other  rapacious  birds  are 
very  sharp-sighted,  yet  do  I  not  think  that  their 
eyes  can  reach  the  object  at  such  distances."! 

We  may  remark,  however,  with  all  deference  to 
the  high  authority  of  Willoughby,  that  his  skepticism 
is  here  carried  too  far,  as  the  accounts  he  objects 
to  are  supported  by  undoubted  facts.  For,  though 
we  should  reject  the  authority  of  Homer,  who,  as 
Pope  renders  it,  says, 

"  Endued  with  sharpest  eye, 
The  sacred  eagle,  from  his  walks  above, 
Looks  down  and  sees  the  distant  thicket  move, 
Then  stoops,  and  sousing  on  the  quivering  hare, 
Snatches  his  life  ;"J 

and  though  we  should  doubt  the  testimony  of  Au- 
relius  Augustine,  who  says  that  "  the  eagle,  when 
so  high  in  the  air  as  to  be  invisible  to  us,  can  per- 
ceive a  hare  lurking  in  an  orchard,  or  a  small  fish 
swimming  in  the  water ;"  yet  we  cannot  refuse  to 
admit  as  unquestionable  facts  the  observations  of 
such  men  as  Wilson  and  Vaillant.  Speaking  of 
the  white-headed  eagle  (Haliaetus  leucocephalus,  SA- 
VIGNY),  Wilson  says,  "  from  the  ethereal  heights  to 
which  he  soars,  looking  abroad,  at  one  glance,  on 
an  immeasurable  expanse  of  forests,  fields,  lakes, 
and  ocean,  deep  below  him ;"  and  of  the  osprey 
(Pandion  haliaetus,  SAVIGNY),  he  says,  "  down  rapid 

*  Ornithology,  by  Ray,  p.  58.  f  Ibid.,  p.  57. 

t  Iliad,  xvii. 


226  FACULTLES    OF    BIRDS. 

as  an  arrow  from  heaven  he  descends,  the  roar  of 
his  wings  reaching  the  ear  as  he  disappears  in  he 
deep."*  M.  Vaillant  again  says  of  his  vociferous 
eagle  (Halia'etus  vocifer,  SAVIGNY),  that,  "like  the 
ospray  and  the  white-tailed  eagle  (Halia'etus  albi- 
cilla,  SA.VIGNY),  it  dives  rapidly  from  a  great  height 
in  the  air  upon  a  fish  which  it  descries. "f  We  have 
ourselves  more  than  once  seen  the  osprey  dash 
down  from  a  height  of  two  or  three  hundred  feet 
upon  a  fish  of  no  considerable  size,  and  which  a 
man  could  with  difficulty  have  perceived  at  the  same 
distance. | 

Ross,  in  his  voyage  to  Baffin's  Bay,  proved  that 
a  man  under  favourable  circumstances  could  see 
over  the  surface  of  the  ocean  to  the  extent  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  English  miles.  It  is  not  proba- 
ble that  any  animal  exceeds  this  power  of  vision, 
though  birds  perhaps  excel  men  and  most  quadru- 
peds in  sharpness  of  sight.  M.  Schmidt  threw,  at 
a  considerable  distance  from  a  thrush  (Turdus  mu- 
sicus),  a  few  small  beetles,  of  a  pale  gray  colour, 
which  the  unassisted  human  eye  could  not  discover, 
yet  the  thrush  observed  them  immediately  and  de- 
voured them.  The  bottletit  (Parus  caudatus)  flits 
with  great  quickness  among  the  branches  of  trees, 
and  finds  on  the  very  smooth  bark  its  particular 
food,  where  nothing  is  perceptible  to  the  naked  eye, 
though  insects  can  be  detected  there  by  the  micro- 
scope. A  very  tame  redbreast  (Rhondella  rubecula) 
discovered  crumbs  from  the  height  of  the  branch 
where  it  usually  sat,  at  the  distance  of  eighteen 
feet  from  the  ground,  the  instant  they  were  thrown 
down,  and  this  by  bending  its  head  to  one  side,  and 
using,  of  course,  only  one  eye.  At  the  same  dis- 
tance a  quail  (Coturnix  major,  BRISSON)  discovered, 
with  one  eye,  some  poppy-seeds,  which  are  very 
small  and  inconspicuous. 

*  American  Ornith.,  v.  f  Oiseaux  d'Afrique,  i.,  18. 

J  J.  Rennie. 


VISION.  227 

We  have  not  a  doubt  it  is  by  the  eye  alone  that 
the  carrier  pigeon  (Columba  tabellaria,  RAY)  per- 
forms those  extraordinary  aerial  journeys  which 
have  from  the  earliest  ages  excited  astonishment. 
We  have  frequently  witnessed  the  experiment  made 
with  other  pigeons ,  of  taking  them  to  a  distance  from 
the  dovecot,  expressly  to  observe  their  manner  of 
finding  their  way  back,  and  we  feel  satisfied  that 
their  proceedings  are  uniformly  the  same.  On  be- 
ing let  go  from  the  bag  in  which  they  have  been 
carried,  in  order  to  conceal  from  their  notice  the  ob- 
jects on  the  road,  they  dart  off  on  an  irregular 
excursion,  as  if  it  were  more  to  ascertain  the 
reality  of  their  freedom  than  to  make  an  effort  to 
return.  When  they  find  themselves  at  full  liberty, 
they  direct  their  flight  in  circles  round  the  spot 
whence  they  have  been  liberated,  not  only  increas- 
ing the  diameter  of  the  circle  at  every  round,  but 
rising  at  the  same  time  gradually  higher.  This  is 
continued  as  long  as  the  eye  can  discern  the  birds, 
and  hence  we  conclude  that  it  is  also  continued 
after  we  lose  sight  of  them,  a  constantly  increasing 
circle  being  made  till  they  ascertain  some  known 
object  enabling  them  to  shape  a  direct  course. 

It  is  not  a  little  interesting  to  contrast  the  pro- 
ceedings just  described  with  those  of  a  pigeon  let 
off  from  a  balloon  elevated  above  the  clouds.  In- 
stead of  rising  in  circles  like  the  former,  the  balloon 
pigeon  drops  perpendicularly  down  like  a  plummet, 
till  it  is  able  to  recognise  some  indications  of  the 
earth  below,  when  it  begins  to  wheel  round  in  a  de- 
scending spiral,  increasing  in  diameter  for  the  evi- 
dent purpose  of  surveying  its  locality,  and  discover- 
ing some  object  previously  known  by  which  to  direct 
its  flight. 

The  rapidity  with  which  the  carrier  pigeon  per- 
forms long  journeys  may,  perhaps,  be  adduced  as 
an  objection  to  this  explanation.  M.  Antoine,  for 
example,  tells  us  that  a  gentleman  of  Cologne,  hav- 


The  Carrier  Pigeon  (Columba  tabellaria). 


VISION.  229 

ing  business  to  transact  at  Paris,  laid  a  wager  of 
fifty  Napoleans  ($200)  that  he  would  let  his  friends 
know  of  his  arrival  within  three  hours,  and  as  the 
distance  is  a  hundred  leagues,  the  bet  was  eagerly 
taken.  He  accordingly  took  with  him  two  carrier 
pigeons  which  had  young  at  the  time,  and  on  arri- 
ving at  Paris  at  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning,  he  tied 
a  letter  to  each  of  his  pigeons,  and  despatched 
them  at  eleven  precisely.  One  of  them  arrived  at 
Cologne  at  five  minutes  past  one  o'clock,  and  the 
other  nine  minutes  later,  and  consequently  they  had 
performed  nearly  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  an  hour, 
reckoning  their  flight  to  have  been  in  a  direct  line. 
But  their  rapidity  was  probably  much  greater  if  they 
took  a  circular  flight,  as  we  have  concluded  from 
the  observation  of  facts.  Audubon  proves  that  the 
American  passenger  pigeon  (Columba  migratoria) 
can  fly  at  least  a  mile  in  a  minute,  and  this  is  a 
heavier  bird  than  the  carrier  pigeon.  The  flight 
of  the  carrier  pigeon,  however,  is,  if  we  may  trust 
to  the  facts  recorded,  very  various.  Lithgow,  the 
traveller,  tells  us  that  one  of  them  will  carry  a  let- 
ter from  Babylon  to  Aleppo  (which  is  thirty  days' 
journey)  in  forty-eight  hours.  In  order  to  measure 
the  speed  of  the  bird,  a  gentleman  some  years  ago 
sent  one  from  London,  by  the  coach,  to  a  friend  at 
Bury  St.  Edmunds,  and  along  with  it  a  note,  desi- 
ring that  the  pigeon,  two  days  after  its  arrival  there, 
might  be  thrown  up  precisely  when  the  town  clock 
struck  nine  in  the  morning.  This  was  accordingly 
done,  and  the  pigeon  arrived  in  London,  and  flew 
into  the  Bull  Inn,  Bishopsgate-street,  at  half  past 
eleven,  having  flown  seventy-two  miles  in  two  hours 
and  a  half,  not  half  the  speed,  it  may  be  remarked, 
of  the  Cologne  pigeons  above  recorded. 

The  observations  of  Audubon  on  the  passenger 
pigeon  tend  to  confirm  the  view  which  we  have 
taken.  "  Their  great  power  of  flight,"  he  says,  "  en- 
ables them  to  survey  and  pass  over  an  astonishing 


230  FACULTIES  OF   BIRDS. 

extent  of  country  in  a  very  short  time.  This  is 
proved  by  facts  well  known  in  America.  Thus,  pi- 
geons have  been  killed  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
New-York  with  their  crops  full  of  rice,  which  they 
must  have  collected  in  the  fields  of  Georgia  and 
Carolina,  these  districts  being  the  nearest  in  which 
they  could  have  procured  a  supply  of  that  kind  of 
food.  As  their  power  of  digestion  is  so  great  that 
they  will  decompose  food  entirely  in  twelve  hours, 
they  must,  in  that  case,  have. travelled  between  three 
and  four  hundred  miles  in  six  hours,  which  shows 
their  speed  to  be,  at  an  average,  about  one  mile  in 
a  minute.  A  velocity  such  as  this  would  enable  one 
of  these  birds,  were  it  so  inclined,  to  visit  the  Eu- 
ropean continent  in  less  than  three  days. 

"This  great  power  of  flight  is  seconded  by  as 
great  a  power  of  vision,  which  enables  them,  as 
they  travel  at  that  swift  rate,  to  inspect  the  country 
below,  discover  their  food  with  facility,  and  thus 
attain  the  object  for  which  their  journey  has  been 
undertaken.  This  I  have  also  proved  to  be  the  case, 
by  having  observed  them,  when  passing  over  a  ster- 
ile part  of  the  country,  or  one  scantily  furnished 
with  food  suited  to  them,  keep  high  in  the  air,  fly- 
ing with  an  extended  front,  so  as  to  enable  them  to 
survey  hundreds  of  acres  at  once.  On  the  contrary, 
when  the  land  is  richly  covered  with  food,  or  the 
trees  abundantly  hung  with  mast,  they  fly  low  in 
order  to  discover  the  part  most  plentifully  supplied. 
Their  body  is  of  an  elongated  oval  form,  steered  by 
a  long,  well-plumed  tail,  and  propelled  by  well-set 
wings,  the  muscles  of  which  are  very  large  and 
powerful  for  the  size  of  the  bird.  When  an  individual 
is  seen  gliding  through  the  woods,  and  close  to  the 
observer,  it  passes  like  a  thought,  and,  on  trying  to 
see  it  again,  the  eye  searches  in  vain ;  the  bird  is 
gone."  "  As  soon,"  he  adds,  "  as  the  pigeons  dis- 
cover a  sufficiency  of  food  to  entice  them  to  alight, 
they  fly  round  in  circles  reviewing  the  country  be- 


VISION.  231 

low.  During  their  evolutions  on  such  occasions, 
the  dense  mass  which  they  form  exhibits  a  beau- 
tiful appearance  as  it  changes  its  direction,  now  dis- 
playing a  glistening  sheet  of  azure,  when  the  backs 
of  the  birds  come  simultaneously  into  view,  and 
anon  suddenly  presenting  a  mass  of  rich,  deep  pur- 
ple. They  then  pass  lower  over  the  woods,  and  for 
a  moment  are  lost  in  the  foliage,  but  again  emerge 
and  are  seen  gliding  aloft." 

The  return  of  the  carrier  pigeon  from  such  dis- 
tances to  its  home  is,  we  think,  most  plausibly  ac- 
counted for  by  its  flying  in  circles ;  but  that  there 
may  be  some  other  manner  in  which  it  is  directed, 
is  not  improbable  from  what  takes  place  among 
quadrupeds.  Instances,  for  example,  are  not  un- 
common of  cats  having  returned  of  their  own  ac- 
cord to  the  place  from  which  they  have  been  car- 
ried, though  at  the  distance  of  many  miles,  and  even 
across  rivers,  where  they  could  not  possibly  have 
had  any  knowledge  either  of 'the  road  or  of  the  direc- 
tion that  would  lead  them  to  it.  "  The  nature  of 
this  beast,"  says  Gesner,  "  is  to  love  the  place  of 
its  breeding  ;  neither  will  she  tarry  in  any  strange 
place,  although  carried  far,  being  never  willing  to 
forsake  the  house  for  the  love  of  any  man,  and  most 
contrary  to  the  nature  of  a  dog,  who  will  travel 
abroad  with  his  master  :  but  although  their  masters 
forsake  their  houses,  yet  will  not  these  beasts  (cats) 
bear  them  company;  and,  being  carried  forth  in  close 
baskets  or  sacks,  they  will  return  again."*  We  have 
thus  known  a  cat  to  travel  from  London  to  Chat- 
ham in  Kent,  a  distance  of  thirty  miles ;  and  most 
persons  can  relate  similar  incidents.  Gesner,  how- 
ever, is  not  correct  in  confining  this  propensity  to 
the  cat,  for  dogs  frequently  do  the  same.  D'Obson- 
ville,  in  his  curious  work,  mentions  a  remarkable  in- 
stance in  a  mastiff.  This  dog,  which  he  had  brought 

*  History  of  four-footed  Beasts,  by  Topsel,  p.  82. 


232  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

up  in  India  from  two  months  old,  accompanied  him 
and  a  friend  from  Pondicherry  to  Benglour,  a  dis- 
tance of  more  than  three  hundred  leagues.  "  Our 
journey,"  he  goes  on  to  say,  "  occupied  nearly  three 
weeks ;  and  we  had  to  traverse  numerous  plains  and 
mountains,  and  to  ford  rivers  and  go  along  several 
by-paths.  The  animal,  which  had  certainly  never 
been  in  that  country  before,  lost  us  at  Benglour,  and 
immediately  returned  to  Pondicherry.  He  went  di- 
rectly to  the  house  of  M.  Beylier,  then  commandant 
of  artillery,  my  friend,  and  with  whom  I  had  gener- 
ally lived.  Now  the  difficulty  is  not  so  much  to 
know  how  the  dog  subsisted  on  the  road  (for  he  was 
very  strong  and  able  to  procure  himself  food),  but 
how  he  could  so  well  have  found  his  way  after  an 
interval  of  more  than  a  month." 

A  still  more  extraordinary  instance  of  returning 
is  recorded  on  the  authority  of  Lieutenant  Alder- 
son,  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  who  was  personally 
acquainted  with  the  facts.  In  March,  1816,  an  ass, 
the  property  of  Captain  Dundas,  R.  N.,then  at  Mal- 
ta, was  shipped  on  board  the  Ister  frigate,  Captain 
Forrest,  bound  from  Gibraltar  for  that  island.  The 
vessel  having  struck  on  some  sands  off  the  Point 
de  Gat,  at  some  distance  from  the  shore,  the  ass 
was  thrown  overboard  to  give  it  a  chance  of  swim- 
ming to  land ;  a  poor  one,  for  the  sea  was  running 
so  high  that  a  boat  which  left  the  ship  was  lost.  A 
few  days  afterward,  however,  when  the  gates  of 
Gibraltar  were  opened  in  the  morning,  the  ass  pre- 
sented himself  for  admittance,  and  proceeded  to  *he 
stable  of  Mr.  Weeks,  a  merchant,  which  he  had 
formerly  occupied,  to  the  no  small  surprise  of  this 
gentleman,  who  imagined  that,  from  some  accident, 
the  animal  had  never  been  shipped  on  board  the 
Ister.  On  the  return  of  the  vessel  to  repair,  the 
mystery  was  explained ;  and  it  turned  out  that  Vali- 
ante  (so  the  ass  was  called)  had  not  only  swam 
safely  to  shore,  but,  without  guide,  compass,  or 


VISION.  233 

travelling  map,  had  found  his  way  from  Point  de 
Gat  to  Gibraltar,  a  distance  of  more  than  two  hun- 
dred miles,  through  a  mountainous  and  intricate 
country,  intersected  by  streams,  which  he  had  never 
traversed  before,  and  in  so  short  a  period  that  he 
could  not  have  made  one  false  turn.  His  not  hav- 
ing been  stopped  on  the  road  was  attributed  to  the 
circumstance  of  his  having  been  formerly  used  to 
whip  criminals  upon,  which  was  indicated  to  the 
peasants  (who  have  a  superstitious  horror  of  such 
asses)  by  the  holes  in  his  ears,  to  which  the  per- 
sons flogged  were  tied. 

It  would  appear,  from  an  observation  of  Profes- 
sor Lichenstein,  that  birds  which  feed  on  carrion 
may  probably  resort  to  making  circular  flights,  simi- 
lar to  the  pigeon,  in  order  to  discover  a  carcass.  He 
remarked,  when  travelling  in  Southern  Africa,  that 
if  an  animal  chanced  to  die  in  the  very  midst  of  the 
most  desert  wilderness,  in  less  than  half  an  hour 
there  was  seen  high  in  the  zenith  a  number  of  mi- 
nute objects  descending  in  spiral  circles,  and  in- 
creasing in  visible  magnitude  at  every  revolution. 
These  were  soon  discovered  to  be  a  flight  of  vul- 
tures, which  must  have  observed  from  a  height, 
viewless  to  the  human  eye,  the  dropping  of  the  ani- 
mal immediately  marked  out  for  prey. 

Dr.  James  Johnson  mentions  a  fact  illustrative  of 
the  same  view.  During  the  northeast  monsoon, 
when  the  wind  blew  steadily  in  one  point  for  months 
in  succession,  he  observed  a  concourse  of  birds  of 
prey  from  every  point  of  the  horizon  hastening  to 
a  corpse  that  was  floating  down  the  river  Ganges ; 
and  he  accounts  for  their  thus  congregating,  and 
appearing  suddenly  from  immense  distances,  to 
their  soaring  high  in  the  air  for  the  purpose  of  look- 
ing out  for  food. 

It  is  said  in  St.  Matthew,  as  the  received  transla- 
tion gives  it,  that  "  where  the  carcass  is,  there  will 
U  2 


234  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

the  eagles  be  gathered  together  ;"*  and  in  Job  it  is 
said,  "  where  the  slain  is,  there  is  she."  Now  it  is 
well  known  that  the  eagle  does  not  feed  on  carrion, 
and  it  has  been  proved,  by  experiment,  that  it  will 
not  touch  it  unless  pressed  by  hunger.  Yet  Pro- 
fessor Paxton  contends  with  St.  Jerome  that  the 
eagle  is  certainly  meant  in  the  text,  and  quotes 
after  Bochart,  the  Arabian  historian  Damir,  who  as- 
serts that  the  eagle  can  discover  a  carcass  at  the 
distance  of  four  hundred  parasangs,  with  this  singu- 
larity that  if  he  find  part  of  it  have  been  previously 
eaten  by  the  osprey,  he  will  not  touch  the  leavings 
of  his  inferior.  This  circumstance,  as  it  appears  to 
us,  .makes  rather  against  than  for  Dr.  Paxton's  opin- 
ion, supposing  the  authority  of  Damir  to  be  good. 
In  consequence  of  this  apparent  discrepance  be- 
tween facts  and  the  text,  St.  Chrysostom  proposed 
to  read  "vultures"  for  "eagles,"  in  the  passages 
both  in  Matthew  and  Job.  Aldrovand,  we  think, 
has  given  the  only  judicious  solution  of  the  diffi- 
culty by  referring  to  a  very  common  oriental  spe- 
cies (Gypaetus  barbatus,  STORR),  which  was  remark- 
ed by  Aristotle  to  be  similar  in  form  to  the  eagle, 
but  had  more  the  habits  of  the  vulture. 

Besides  the  nictitating  membrane  in  the  eye  of 
birds  already  described,  which  is  not  altogether  pe- 
culiar to  them,  there  is  another  singular  part  of 
the  organ  whose  use  has  not  hitherto  been  clearly 
ascertained.  It  is  called  by  the  French  Academi- 
cians the  purse  (marsupium),  and  the  comb  (pecten 
plicatum).  It  arises  in  the  back  of  the  eye,  and 
proceeding,  apparently,  through  a  slit  in  the  retina, 
it  passes  obliquely  into  the  vitreous  humour,  where 
it  terminates,  reaching  in  some  species  to  the  cap- 
sule of  the  lens.  Numerous  bloodvessels  run  in 
the  folds  of  the  membranes  which  compose  it,  and 
the  black  pigment  by  which  it  is  covered  suggests 

*  Matt,  xxiv.,  28,  and  Luke  xvii.,  37, 


VISION.  235 

the  idea  that  it  is  chiefly  destined  to  absorb  the 
rays  of  light  when  they  are  too  strong  or  dazzling ; 
if  this  be  the  fact,  it  may  serve  the  eagle  in  good 
stead  when  gazing,  if  he  ever  do  so,  on  the  sun. 
It  is  the  opinion  of  others  that  it  serves  to  assist  in 
producing  the  internal  changes  of  the  eye ;  but  this 
has  been  opposed  by  Crampton,  who  has  shown 
that  the  changes  in  question,  at  least  in  the  ostrich 
and  several  large  birds,  are  produced  by  a  peculiar 
circular  muscle  in  the  eyeball. 

This  singular  membrane  has  been  long  known, 
and  is  well  described  by  the  French  Academi- 
cians, who  remark  that,  in  the  eyes  of  the  turkey, 
the  optic  nerve,  which  is  situated  very  near  the 
side,  spreads  into  a  round  space,  from  the  circum- 
ference of  which  a  number  of  black  filaments  are 
sent  off  to  form,  by  their  union,  a  membrane  pecu- 
liar to  the  eye  of  birds.  In  the  eyes  of  the  ostrich 
they  describe  the  optic  nerve  as  dilated  into  a  sort  of 
funnel  of  a  similar  substance.  From  this  funnel  a 
folded  membrane  takes  its  origin,  forming  a  sort  of 
purse  drawn  to  a  point.  This  is  covered  with  a 
black  pigment  easily  rubbed  off. 

Buffon  is  of  opinion,  that  on  account  of  this  ex- 
pansion of  the  optic  nerve,  birds  must  have  a  vastly 
more  perfect  sight  than  other  animals,  embracing 
also  a  much  wider  range.  Hence  it  is  that  a  spar- 
row-hawk, while  he  hovers  in  the  air,  espies  a  lark 
sitting  on  a  clod,  though  at  twenty  times  the  distance 
at  which  it  could  be  perceived  by  a  man  or  dog. 
The  kite,  which  soars  to  so  amazing  a  height  as 
totally  to  vanish  from  our  sight,  can  yet  distinguish 
small  lizards,  field-mice,  and  birds,  and  from  this 
lofty  station  he  selects  his  prey.  This  prodigious 
extent  of  vision  is,  moreover,  conjoined  with  equal 
accuracy  and  clearness,  inasmuch  as  the  eye  can 
dilate  and  contract ;  can  be  shaded  or  uncovered ; 
depressed  or  protruded ;  readily  assuming  the  pre- 
cise condition  adapted  to  the  distance  of  an  object 
and  the  quantity  of  light. 


236  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

In  consequence  of  the  rapidity  with  which  birds 
traverse  the  air,  extent  and  acuteness  of  vision  ap- 
pear to  be  indispensable,  in  order  to  direct  them  in 
their  flight.  Had  they,  indeed,  been  formed  with 
eyes  like  the  mole  (Talpa  lucida,  C.  BONAPARTE), 
incapable  of  seeing  more  than  a  few  inches'  dis- 
tance, they  would  have  been  in  constant  danger  of 
dashing  against  every  intervening  obstacle.  "  In- 
deed," says  Buffon,  "  we  may  consider  the  celerity 
with  which  an  animal  moves  as  a  just  indication  of 
the  perfection  of  its  vision.  A  bird,  for  instance, 
that  shoots  swiftly  through  the  air,  must  undoubt- 
edly see  better  than  one  which  slowly  describes 
a  tortuous  tract.  Among  quadrupeds,  again,  the 
sloths  have  a  very  limited  sight."  It  may  accord- 
ingly be  inferred,  that  birds  have  more  precise  ideas 
than  slow-moving  caterpillars,  of  motion  and  its  ac- 
companying circumstances,  such  as  those  of  rela- 
tive velocity,  extent  of  country,  the  proportional 
height  of  eminences,  and  the  various  inequalities 
of  hill  and  dale,  mountain  and  valley. 

The  eye  of  birds,  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  besides 
being  peculiar  in  structure,  is  also  greatly  larger 
than  in  most  other  animals  in  proportion  to  the 
bulk  of  the  head. 

The  mere  bulk  of  the  eye,  however,  is  rather  a 
fallacious  test  to  trust  to;  for  several  birds,  in 
which  the  globe  of  the  eye  is  large,  have  very  weak 
sight,  particularly  in  the  daytime,  such  as  the  wood- 
cock and  the  owls.  The  woodcock  (Scolopax  Gal- 
linago,  RAY)  has  very  large,  prominent  eyes,  but 
it  cannot  support  a  strong  light,  and  sees  best  du- 
ring twilight ;  and,  as  Colonel  Montagu  remarks,  its 
eyes  seem  to  be  peculiarly  calculated  for  collect- 
ing the  faint  rays  of  light  in  the  darkened  vales  and 
sequestered  woodlands  during  nocturnal  excursions, 
thus  enabling  it  to  avoid  trees  and  other  obstacles. 
It  is  probable,  indeed,  that  the  proverbial  stupidity 
of  the  bird  arises  from  this  weakness  of  sight. 


VISION.  237 

Like  the  owl,  indeed,  its  motions  are  much  more 
agile  and  lively  at  nightfall  and  dawn  than  at  any 
other  time ;  and  so  strong  is  this  propensity  to  ac- 
tion at  the  rise  or  descent  of  the  sun,  that  wood- 
cocks when  kept  in  a  room  are  observed  to  flutter 
about  regularly  every  morning  and  evening,  while 
during  the  day  they  only  trip  on  the  floor  without 
attempting  to  fly. 

The  stone-curlew  (OEdicnemus  crepitans,  TEM- 
MINCK)  differs  from  the  woodcock  particularly  in 
this,  that  though  its  eyes  are  similarly  prominent, 
yet,  if  we  may  believe  M.  Montbeillard,  its  sight  is 
very  acute  in  the  daytime,  though  he  admits  it  can 
see  best  in  the  twilight.  The  prominence  of  its 
eyes  enables  it  to  see  behind  as  well  as  before,  and 
it  is  with  difficulty,  therefore,  that  it  can  be  ap- 
proached. Paley  justly  remarks,  that  "  what  is 
gained  by  the  largeness  or  prominence  of  the  globe 
of  the  eye  is  width  in  the  field  of  vision." 

With  respect  to  owls,  as  well  as  most  night- 
prowling  animals,  the  eye  is  unquestionably  very 
sensible.  Of  the  barred  owl  (Slrix  nebulosa,  GME- 
LIN),  Audubon  says,  its  "  power  of  sight  during  the 
day  seems  to  be  rather  of  an  equivocal  character, 
as  I  once  saw  one  alight  on  the  back  of  a  cow, 
which  it  left  so  suddenly  afterward,  when  the  cow 
moved,  as  to  prove  to  me  that  it  had  mistaken  the 
object  on  which  it  had  perched  for  something  else. 
At  other  times  I  have  observed  that  the  approach 
of  the  gray  squirrel  intimidated  them,  if  one  of 
these  animals  accidentally  jumped  on  a  branch  close 
to  them,  although  the  owl  destroys  a  number  of 
them  during  twilight."  M.  Vaillant  mentions  a 
similar  circumstance  which  he  more  than  once  ob- 
served in  different  species  of  owls,  if  they  chanced 
to  be  roused  from  their  lurking-places  by  day,  when, 
instead  of  pursuing  small  birds,  which  are  their  nat- 
ural prey,  they  fled  from  them  in  fear. 

Wilson  says  of  the  snowy  owl  (Stryx  nyctea),  that 


238  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

"  the  conformation  of  the  eye  forms  a  curious  and 
interesting  subject  to  the  young  anatomist.  The 
globe  of  the  eye  is  immoveably  fixed  in  its  socket 
by  a  strong,  elastic,  hard  cartilaginous  case,  in 
form  of  a  truncated  cone :  this  case,  being  closely 
covered  with  a  skin,  appears  at  first  to  be  of  one 
continued  piece,  but  on  removing  the  exterior  mem- 
brane it  is  found  to  be  formed  of  fifteen  pieces, 
placed  like  the  staves  of  a  cask,  overlapping  a  little 
at  the  base  or  narrow  end,  and  seem  as  if  capable 
of  being  enlarged  or  contracted,  perhaps  by  the 
muscular  membrane  in  which  they  are  encased." 
"  In  five  other  different  species  of  owls,"  adds  Wil- 
son, "  which  I  have  since  examined,  I  found  nearly 
the  same  conformation  of  this  organ,  and  exactly 
the  same  number  of  staves.  The  eye  being  thus 
fixed,  these  birds,  as  they  view  different  objects, 
are  always  obliged  to  turn  the  head,  and  nature  has 
so  excellently  adapted  their  neck  to  this  purpose, 
that  they  can  with  ease  turn  it  round,  without  mo- 
ving the  body,  in  almost  a  complete  circle."* 

In  nocturnal  birds,  M.  de  Blainville  remarks,  that 
the  eye,  besides  being  comparatively  very  large,  is 
flat  (comprime)  both  before  and  behind,  while  the 
transparent  cornea  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  sort  of 
tube  formed  by  the  bony  portion  of  the  sclerotic. 
The  retina  is,  consequently,  comparatively  very 
large  and  extended,  and  the  iris  also,  while  the  mem- 
branes, being  probably  more  soft  and  delicate,  are 
more  susceptible  of  impressions  from  a  small  quan- 
tity of  light.  The  nictitating  membrane  is  also  very 
large,  and  the  upper  eyelid,  unlike  other  birds,  is 
moveable. 

It  may  be  worth  mentioning,  that  animals  born 
with  perfect  eyes  can  use  them  the  instant  they 
enter  the  world.  Sir  James  Hall,  when  making 
experiments  on  hatching,  observed  a  chicken  in  the 

*  Araer.  Ornith.,  iv.,  56,  1st  edit. 


HEARING.  239 

act  of  breaking  through  the  shell,  and  just  as  it  got 
out  a  spider  began  to  run  along  the  box,  when  the 
chicken  darted  forward,  seized  and  swallowed  it  as 
adroitly  as  if  it  had  been  instructed  by  its  mother. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

HEARING,   SMELL,  AND  TASTE   OF  BIRDS. 

THE  effect  of  an  accidental  occurrence  in  giving 
undue  importance  to  things  not  otherwise  extraor- 
dinary, is  strikingly  exemplified  in  the  instance  of 
the  geese  which  are  reported  to  have  saved  the 
capitol  of  Rome.  "  The  Gauls,"  says  Livy,  "  having 
discovered  that  the  rock  Carmentalis  was  accessible, 
one  night  when  it  was  pretty  clear,  sent  a  man  to 
examine  the  way,  without  his  arms,  which  were 
afterward  handed  to  him.  Others  followed,  lifting 
and  assisting  each  other,  according  to  the  difficulties 
they  encountered  in  the  ascent,  till  they  reached  the 
summit.  They  proceeded  with  so  much  silence, 
that  neither  the  sentinels  nor  even  the  dogs,  animals 
usually  so  vigilant  as  to  be  roused  by  the  slightest 
noise,  took  any  alarm.  They  did  not,  however,  es- 
cape the  notice  of  the  geese,  which,  being  sacred 
to  Juno,  had  been  fed  by  the  Romans,  notwith- 
standing the  famine  caused  by  the  siege.  This  sa- 
ved the  capitol ;  for,  by  their  cackling  and  beating 
their  wings,  they  roused  Marcus  Manlius,  a  brave 
soldier  and  formerly  consul,  who,  snatching  up  his 
arms  and  giving  the  alarm,  flew  to  the  ramparts,  set 
upon  the  Gauls,  and,  by  precipitating  one  of  them 
over  the  rocks,  terrified  them  so  much  that  they  threw 
down  their  arms."*  Pliny  accordingly  infers  from 

*  Hist.,  v.,  47. 


240  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

this  circumstance  (probably  a  mere  legend),  that 
"  the  goose  is  very  vigilant  and  watchfull :  witnesse 
the  capitol  of  Rome,  which  by  the  meanes  of  geese 
was  defended  and  saved ;  whereas  at  the  same  time, 
through  the  default  of  dogs  (which  should  have 
given  warning),  all  had  like  to  have  bin  lost."* 
./Elian  again  tells  us  that  the  Gauls  bribed  the  dogs 
of  the  capitol  to  silence  with  food,  which  the  geese 
refused  and  screamed  out ;  and  hence  it  was  infer- 
red by  Columella  that  geese  are  preferable  to  dogs 
for  watching  a  farm,  while  Vegetius  does  not  hesi- 
tate to  assert  that  they  are  the  most  vigilant  senti- 
nels that  can  be  planted  in  a  besieged  city. 

Whatever  truth  may  be  in  the  narratives  given 
by  Livy  and  ^Blian,  we  are  quite  certain  that,  so 
far  from  possessing  any  superiority  either  in  hearing 
or  smelling,  the  goose  is  much  inferior  to  many  oth- 
er birds  in  these  respects.  This  is  easily  proved 
by  the  simple  experiment  of  trying  the  effect  of  va- 
rious sounds  upon  the  birds,  taking  care  to  have  the 
cause  thereof  concealed  from  their  view.  We  have, 
for  example,  caused  a  dog  to  bark  behind  a  wall  on 
the  other  side  of  which  geese  were  feeding,  without 
their  appearing  to  take  any  notice  of  it,  any  more 
than  they  did  when  we  shouted  aloud  on  purpose  to 
alarm  them.  When  the  dog,  however,  was  brought 
into  view,  they  took  immediate  alarm. 

The  correct  view  of  the  matter,  as  it  appears  to 
us,  was  first  hinted  at  by  Albertus  Magnus,  who  says 
the  goose  sleeps  so  lightly  that  it  is  awakened  by 
the  least  noise.  The  profoundness  of  sleep,  indeed, 
is  found  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  brain 
and  the  rapidity  of  circulation,  and  both  these  being 
in  birds  unfavourable  to  sleep,  renders  them  very 
easily  awakened.  The  hearing,  also,  according  to 
M.  Cabani,  though  it  is  not  so  soon  overpowered  by 
sleep  as  sight,  smell,  and  taste,  is  much  more  easily 

*  Hist.  Nat.,  x.,  22,  by  Holland. 


HEARING.  241 

awakened,  for  a  slight  noise  will  often  rouse  a  sleep- 
walker, who  had  borne  an  intense  light  on  his  un- 
shut  eyes  without  seeming  in  the  least  to  feel  its 
influence. 

The  structure  of  the  ear  in  birds  would  lead  us 
to  conclude  that  they  could  not  hear  so  quickly  as 
other  animals.  Nevertheless,  we  find  that  the  sense 
of  hearing  is  enjoyed  in  an  exquisite  degree  in  birds ; 
that  the  organ  of  the  sense  is  not  imperfect,  but  is 
adapted  to  a  new  construction,  and  a  varied  appara- 
tus suited  to  the  condition  of  the  bird ;  and  that 
there  is  no  accidental  dislocation  or  substitution  of 
something  less  perfect  than  what  we  find  in  other 
classes  of  animals."* 

The  internal  parts  of  the  ear  in  birds  are  much 
less  complicated  than  in  man  and  quadrupeds ;  but, 
without  going  into  the  minute  particulars  of  differ- 
ence, we  shall  only  mention  one  peculiarity,  which 
is,  that  while  the  chamber  of  the  drum  communi- 
cates with  three  large  cavities  in  the  adjacent  bony 
plates,  these  again  communicate  by  an  equal  num- 
ber of  openings  with  the  drum  in  the  same  side,  one 
of  them  extending  over  the  scull  to  its  fellow  on 
the  other  side.  Sir  Everard  Home  has  observed  a 
similar  kind  of  communication  by  means  of  the 
cells  of  the  scull  in  the  elephant.  We  have  little 
doubt  that  the  provision  made  for  rendering  birds 
more  buoyant,  consisting  of  air-vessels  extended 
from  the  lungs  throughout  the  body,  and  even  to  the 
bones  themselves,  contributes  to  render  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  air  more  distinct,  muffled  as  they  must 
always  partially  be  by  the  feathers  of  the  bird. 

The  faculty  of  imitating  sounds  possessed  by  cer- 
tain birds,  proves  that  their  hearing  must  be  ex- 
ceedingly delicate ;  and  though  we  suspend  our  be- 
lief of  the  great  musical  talents  which  some  birds 
are  said  to  have  derived  from  education,  we  find 

*  Bridgewater  Treatise  on  the  Hand,  p.  139. 
X 


242  FACULTIES    OF   BIRDS. 

many  well-attested  instances  of  a  delicate  ear  in 
species  by  no  means  remarkable  for  vocal  execution. 
Madame  Piozzi  gives  an  account  of  a  tame  pigeon, 
which  answered  by  gesticulation  to  every  note  of  a 
harpsichord.  As  often  as  she  began  to  play,  the 
pigeon  hurried  to  the  concert  with  every  indication 
of  rapturous  delight.  A  false  note  produced  in  the 
bird  evident  tokens  of  displeasure,  and,  if  frequently 
repeated,  it  lost  all  temper  and  tore  her  hands.* 

A  no  less  remarkable  instance  of  the  effect  of 
music  on  a  pigeon  is  related  by  Lockman  in  his  re- 
flections upon  operas,  prefixed  to  his  musical  drama 
of  Rosalinda.  Being  at  the  house  of  a  Cheshire 
gentleman,  whose  daughter  was  a  fine  performer  on 
the  harpsichord,  he  observed  a  pigeon,  which,  when- 
ever the  young  lady  played  the  song  of  "  Speri  si" 
in  Handell's  opera  of  Admetus,  would  descend  from 
an  adjacent  dovecot  to  the  room  window  where  she 
sat,  and  listen  with  every  indication  of  pleasure  till 
the  song  was  finished,  when  it  uniformly  returned 
to  the  dovecot. 

M.  Le  Cat,  holding  the  theory  that  the  cochlea 
or  snail-shell  of  the  ear  is  the  organ  which  perceives 
harmony  and  which  is  wanting  in  birds,  yet  admits 
birds  to  be  the  most  musical  of  all  animals,  and  to 
have  an  exquisite  hearing, "  because,"  he  says,  "  their 
heads  are  almost  entirely  sonorous  like  a  bell,  owing 
to  their  not  being  involved  in  complicated  muscles, 
as  are  the  heads  of  other  animals.  Hence  must 
they  necessarily  be  agitated  by  the  sounds  which  pre- 
sent themselves.  The  labyrinth  of  their  ear  being 
very  sonorous,  is  sufficient  for  this  end.  The  most 
simple  grot  will  echo  back  a  musical  air ;  but  if,  to 
this  excellent  disposition  of  hearing  in  birds,  nature 
had  added  the  cochlea,  they  would  have  been  much 
more  sensible  of  harmonious  modulations.  They 
would  have  had  a  passion  for  harmony,  as  almost 

*  Letters  from  France  and  Italy. 


HEARING.  243 

all  animals  have  for  gormandizing,  which  is  not  the 
case.  For  one  ought  to  recollect  that  the  musical 
quality  peculiar  to  birds  proceeds  less  from  the  del- 
icacy and  taste  of  their  ear  than  from  the  disposi- 
tion of  their  throat.  They  farthermore,  in  this  par- 
ticular, resemble  musicians,  who  give  pleasure  to 
others  without  partaking  of  any  themselves.  We 
hear  a  dog  howl,  we  see  him  weep,  as  it  were,  at  a 
tune  played  upon  a  flute ;  when,  on  the  contrary, 
this  animal  is  all  alive  in  the  field  at  the  sound  of  a 
French  horn.  The  horse  takes  fire  at  the  sound  of 
a  trumpet,  in  spite  of  the  thick  muscular  texture 
his  auditory  organ  is  encompassed  with.  Without 
the  cochlea  these  animals  are  provided  with,  one 
would  by  no  means  discover  in  them  this  sensibility 
for  harmony.  We  should  rather  find  them,  in  this 
respect,  as  stupid  as  fish,  which  are  destitute  of  the 
cochlea  as  well  as  birds ;  but  without  the  advan- 
tages which  birds  have,  of  a  head  sufficiently  disen- 
gaged, sufficiently  sonorous,  to  supply  this  defect."* 
For  the  sake  of  illustration,  we  may  remark  that 
many  other  animals  besides  birds  are  observed  to 
be  singularly  affected  with  certain  sounds.  Among 
these,  the  elephant  is  not  a  little  remarkable,  though 
Sir  Everard  Home  is  disposed  to  think  it  does  not 
possess  a  musical  ear.  Suetonius,  for  example,  tells 
us  that  the  Emperor  Domitian  had  a  troop  of  ele- 
phants disciplined  to  dance  to  the  sound  of  music, 
and  that  one  of  them  who  had  been  beaten  for  not 
having  his  lesson  perfect,  was  observed,  the  night 
afterward,  practising  by  himself  in  a  meadow. 
Outrageous  bulls  have  likewise,  in  several  instances, 
been  calmed  into  gentleness  by  music.  Of  this 
musical  feeling  in  oxen  Dr.  Southey  mentions  a 
very  singular  instance.  "  The  carts,"  he  says,  "  of 
Corunna  make  so  loud  and  disagreeable  a  creaking 
with  their  wheels  for  want  of  oil,  that  the  governor 

*  Le  Cat  on  the  Senses,  Eng.  trans. 


244  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

once  issued  an  order  to  have  them  greased ;  but  it 
was  revoked  on  the  petition  of  the  carters,  who 
stated  that  the  oxen  liked  the  sound,  and  would  not 
draw  without  its  music."*  Even  fish,  upon  better 
authority  than  the  old  story  of  Amphion  and  the 
dolphin,  are  said  to  have  shown  signs  of  being  af- 
fected by  music  ;  and  seals,  we  are  told,  have  crowd- 
ed to  hear  a  violin. f  "  Seals,"  says  Valerius  Flac- 
cus,  "  delight  in  song,"  which  Sir  Walter  Scott  has 
rendered, 

"  Rude  Heiskar's  seals,  through  surges  dark, 
Will  long  pursue  the  minstrel's  bark." 

In  Germany  they  take  the  shad  (Alosa  clupea,  MER- 
KET)  by  means  of  nets,  to  which  bows  of  wood, 
hung  with  a  number  of  little  bells,  are  attached  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  chime  in  harmony  when  the 
nets  are  moved.  The  shad,  when  once  attracted  by 
the  sound,  will  not  attempt  to  escape  while  the 
bells  continue  to  ring.  ^Elian  says  the  shad  is  al- 
lured by  castanets :  and  so  delicate  is  the  ear  of  this 
fish  reported  to  be,  that  the  sound  of  thunder  terri- 
fies them  to  death,  and  numbers  are  annually  found 
thus  killed  on  the  Rhine  and  the  Moselle. 

Numerous  other  instances  of  a  similar  kind  are 
recorded,  upon  authority  far  from  being  destitute  of 
respectability,  though  they  may  somewhat  startle 
the  faith  of  the  incredulous.  An  officer,  confined 
in  the  Bastile  at  Paris,  begged  the  governor  to  per- 
mit him  the  use  of  his  lute,  to  soften  his  confine- 
ment by  the  harmonies  of  his  instrument.  At  the 
end  of  a  few  days  this  modern  Orpheus,  playing  on 
his  lute,  was  greatly  astonished  to  see  frisking  out 
of  their  holes  great  numbers  of  mice,  and  descend- 
ing from  their  woven  habitations  crowds  of  spiders, 
which  formed  a  circle  about  him  while  he  contin- 

*  Letters  from  Spain. 

t  Laing's  Voyage  to  Spitsbergen. 


HEARING.  245 

ned  playing  upon  his  instrument.  At  first  he  was 
petrified  with  astonishment,  when,  having  ceased 
to  play,  the  assembly  of  animals  immediately  broke 
up.  Having  a  great  dislike  to  vermin,  it  was  two 
days  before  he  ventured  to  touch  the  instrument ; 
but  having  mustered  courage  to  conquer  his  dislike, 
he  recommenced  his  concert,  when  the  assembly 
was  by  far  more  numerous  than  at  first ;  and,  in  the 
course  of  farther  time,  he  found  himself  surrounded 
by  a  hundred  of  these  animal  amateurs. 

M.  Marville  has  given  the  following  curious  de- 
tails on  this  subject.  Doubting,  he  tells  us,  the 
truth  of  those  who  say  it  is  natural  for  us  to  love 
music,  especially  the  sound  of  instruments,  and  that 
beasts  themselves  are  touched  with  it,  being  one 
day  in  the  country  he  made  his  observations,  while 
a  man  was  playing  on  a  conch  shell,  upon  a  cat,  a 
dog,  a  horse,  an  ass,  a  hind,  cows,  small  birds,  and 
some  barndoor  fowls  in  a  yard  under  the  window  on 
which  he  was  leaning.  He  did  not  perceive  that 
the  cat  was  in  the  least  affected,  and  he  even  judg- 
ed by  her  air  that  she  would  have  given  all  the  mu- 
sical instruments  in  the  world  for  a  mouse,  for  she 
slept  all  the  while  unmoved  in  the  sun ;  the  horse 
stopped  short  from  time  to  time  before  the  window, 
raising  his  head  up  now  and  then,  as  he  was  feed- 
ing on  the  grass ;  the  dog  continued  for  above  an 
hour  seated  on  his  hind  legs,  looking  steadfastly  at 
the  player ;  and  the  ass  did  not  discover  the  least 
indication  of  his  being  touched,  eating  his  thistles 
very  peaceably ;  the  hind  lifted  up  her  large  wide 
ears,  and  seemed  very  attentive  ;  the  cows  slept  a 
little,  and  after  gazing  a  while  went  forward;  some 
little  birds  which  were  in  an  aviary,  and  others  on 
trees  and  bushes,  almost  tore  their  little  throats  with 
singing;  but  the  cock  minding  his  hens,  and  the 
hens  solely  employed  in  scraping  in  a  neighbouring 
dunghill,  did  not  show  in  any  manner  that  they  took 
the  least  pleasure  in  hearing  the  music. 
X2 


246  FACULTIES    OP    BIRDS. 

Sir  William  Jones,  in  his  curious  dissertation  on 
the  musical  modes  of  the  Hindoos,  says,  "  I  have 
been  assured  by  a  credible  eyewitness  that  two 
wild  antelopes  used  often  to  come  from  their  woods 
to  the  place  where  a  more  savage  beast — Sirajud- 
daulah — entertained  himself  with  concerts,  and  that 
they  listened  to  the  strains  with  an  appearance  of 
pleasure,  till  the  monster,  in  whose  soul  there  was 
no  music,  shot  one  of  them  to  display  his  skill  in 
archery."* 

The  anatomical  structure  and  conformation  which 
constitutes  what  is  called  a  musical  ear,  remains 
hitherto  unknown;  but  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
songs  of  birds,  it  must  differ  considerably  in  them 
from  wrhat  it  does  in  man,  as  their  musical  scale 
cannot  be  adapted  to  any  of  ours ;  though  Mrs.  Pi- 
ozzi's  account  of  the  musical  pigeon,  as  well  as  the 
fact  of  bulfinches  and  other  birds  learning  to  pipe 
waltzes  and  other  airs,  proves  that  they  can  accom- 
modate their  ear  to  scales  differing  from  the  one  in 
which  the}'-  naturally  sing. 

Smell  in  Birds. — As  the  sensation  of  smell,  so  far 
as  we  can  judge,  seems  to  depend  upon  the  diffu- 
sion in  the  air  of  very  subtile  effluvia,  or  a  principle 
called  aroma,  hitherto,  but  little  understood,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  objects  cannot  be  perceived  at  so  great 
a  distance  by  smell  as  by  hearing  or  vision,  which 
do  not  depend  on  materials  derived  from  the  ob- 
jects themselves.  The  discovery  of  distant  water 
by  the  camel,  however,  seems  to  depend  on  the 
sense  of  smell ;  and,  if  we  are  to  credit  the  author- 
ities given  by  Bryant,  the  ass  has  a  similar  faculty 
of  discovering  distant  water  by  the  smell. 

These  two  instances  of  the  camel  and  the  ass, 
however,  seem  to  be  solitary,  for  we  have  no  good 
evidence  to  prove  that  other  animals  can  discover 
very  distant  objects  by  the  smell,  though  the  fact 

*  Asiatic  Researches. 


SMELL.  247 

has  been  commonly  asserted  of  vultures,  and  also 
of  the  goose.  In  a  case  of  this  sort,  observation  is 
always  better  than  the  most  ingenious  and  plausible 
theoretical  reasoning ;  and  fortunately  we  possess, 
with  respect  to  the  vulture  and  some  other  birds, 
the  remarks  of  Dr.  James  Johnson,  which  we  have 
already  partially  referred  to.  "  It  has  always," 
says  the  doctor,  "  appeared  to  us  most  extraordi- 
nary, indeed  unaccountable,  that  birds  of  prey  could 
scent  carcasses  at  such  a  distance  as  they  are  said 
to  do.  We  were  led  to  skepticism  on  this  subject 
some  twenty  years  ago,  while  observing  the  con- 
course of  birds  of  prey  from  every  point  of  the  hor- 
izon to  a  corpse  floating  down  the  river  Ganges, 
and  that  during  the  northeast  monsoon,  when  the 
wind  blew  steadily  from  one  point  of  the  compass 
for  months  in  succession.  It  was  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  imagine  that  the  effluvia  from  a  putrefying 
body  in  the  water  could  emanate  in  direct  opposi- 
tion to  the  current  of  air,  and  impinge  on  the  olfac- 
tories of  birds  many  miles  distant.  Such,  however, 
were  the  dicta  of  natural  history,  and  we  could  only 
submit  to  the  general  opinion.  We  have  no  doubt, 
now  that  we  know  the  general  opinion  to  be  some- 
thing wrong,  that  it  was  by  means  of  the  optic 
rather  than  the  olfactory  nerve,  that  these  birds 
found  out  their  quarry. 

"It  has  been  ascertained  by  direct  experiments, 
that  where  any  putrid  carrion  was  enclosed  in  a 
basket,  from  which  effluvia  could  freely  emanate, 
but  which  concealed  the  offal  from  sight,  it  attract- 
ed no  attention  from  vultures  and  other  birds  of 
prey  till  it  was  exposed  to  their  view,  when  they 
immediately  recognised  their  object,  and  others 
came  rapidty  from  different  quarters  of  the  horizon, 
where  they  were  invisible  a  few  minutes  before. 
This  sudden  appearance  of  birds  of  prey,  from  im- 
mense distances  and  in  every  direction,  however  the 
wind  may  blow,  can  only  be  accounted  for  by  their 


248  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

soaring  to  an  altitude.  In  this  situation,  their  prey 
on  the  ground  is  seen  by  them,  however  minute  it 
may  be,  and  their  appearance  is  merely  their  de- 
scent from  high  regions  of  the  atmosphere  to  within 
the  scope  of  our  optics." 

With  respect  to  the  smell  of  vultures,  Willoughby 
says,  "  they  have  an  excellent  sagacity  of  smelling 
above  all  other  birds,  so  that  they  can  perceive  the 
savour  of  dead  carcasses  from  far,"  to  which  Ray 
adds, "  many  miles  off  they  say."*  Some  of  the  old 
authors,  indeed,  such  as  Thomas  Aquinas,  specify 
the  distance  at  which  a  vulture  can  scent  out  a 
dead  body  to  be  five  hundred  miles,  and  Isidore  al- 
leges it  is  no  matter  even  if  the  sea  itself  intervene. 

It  may  well  be  disputed,  however,  that  the  smell 
of  the  vulture  or  any  other  bird  extends  to  the  dis- 
tances alleged  by  these  writers,  for,  as  was  long 
ago  remarked  by  Caelius  Rhodiginus,  odorous  efflu- 
via cannot  be  distinguished  at  any  considerable  dis- 
tance, as  they  are  not  only  diluted  by  being  diffused 
in  the  air,  but  may  even  be  thereby  wholly  changed 
in  their  qualities.  The  observations  of  Avicenna 
are  still  more  to  the  point.  "I  have,"  he  says, 
"  observed  vultures  wheeling  about  in  the  air,  and, 
of  course,  their  vision  must  be  extensive,  to  enable 
them  to  see  from  a  higher  elevation  than  the  highest 
mountains,  since  they  can  in  such  circumstances 
discern  a  piece  of  carrion  in  the  plains  below  them. 
But  if  it  is  denied  that  colours  can  be  perceived  at 
such  distances,  much  more  ought  the  same  to  be 
affirmed  of  odours,  whose  power  is  weaker  than 
that  of  colours." 

From  all  these  various  facts,  we  think  Dr.  John- 
son's remarks  are  decidedly  the  most  plausible; 
and  even  those  authors  who  speak  in  the  most  un- 
hesitating manner  of  the  powers  of  smell,  furnish 
from  their  own  accounts  circumstances  to  prove 

*  Ornith.,  by  Ray,  p.  66. 


SMELL.  249 

their  opinions  doubtful.  Wilson,  for  example, 
speaking  of  the  turkey -vulture  (Cathartes  aura,  IL- 
LIGER),  says,  "  These  birds,  unless  when  rising  from 
the  earth,  seldom  flap  their  wings,  but  sweep  along 
in  ogees,  and  dipping  and  rising  lines,  and  move  with 
great  rapidity.  They  are  often  seen  in  companies, 
soaring  at  an  immense  height,  particularly  previous 
to  a  thunder-storm.  Their  wings  are  not  spread 
horizontally,  but  form  a  slight  angle  with  the  body 
upward,  the  tips  having  an  upward  curve.  Their 
sense  of  smelling  is  astonishingly  exquisite,  and 
they  never  fail  to  discover  carrion,  even  when  at 
the  distance  from  it  of  several  miles."*  Their 
soaring  in  the  air,  whether  during  a  thunder-storm 
or  at  any  other  time,  must  evidently  be  not  for  the 
purpose  of  smelling  out,  but  for  discovering  by  the 
eye  some  piece  of  carrion.  The  Abbe  Clavigero's 
account  of  the  black  vulture  (Catharte  urubu,  VIEIL- 
LOT)  is  precisely  similar.  "  They  fly  so  high,"  he 
says,  "  that  although  they  are  pretty  large,  they  are 
lost  to  the  sight ;  and  especially  before  a  hailstorm, 
they  will  be  seen  wheeling  in  vast  numbers  under 
the  loftiest  clouds,  till  they  entirely  disappear. 
They  feed  upon  carrion,  which  they  discover  by  the 
acuteness  of  their  sight  and  smell,  from  the  great- 
est height,  and  descend  upon  it  with  a  majestic  flight 
in  a  great  spiral  course."! 

The  raven  is  another  of  those  birds  which  have 
been  celebrated  for  discovering  distant  objects  by 
the  smell,  which  Bingley  thinks  "  must  be  very 
acute  ;  for  in  the  coldest  winter  days,  at  Hudson's 
Bay,  when  every  kind  of  effluvia  is  almost  instanta- 
neously destroyed  by  the  frost,  buffaloes  and  other 
beasts  have  been  killed  where  not  one  of  these  birds 
was  to  be  seen,  but  in  a  few  hours  scores  of  them 
have  been  found  collected  about  the  spot,  to  pick  up 
the  blood  and  offal.  "J  Mr.  Knapp  is  also  disposed 

*  Amer.  Ornith.,  ix.,  98,  first  edit.        f  Hist.  Mexico. 
£  Animal  Biography,  ii.,  242. 


250  FACULTIES    OF   BIRDS. 

either  to  refer  this  circumstance  to  smell,  or  to  some 
mysterious  sense  inscrutable  to  human  penetration. 
"  Should  an  animal  die,"  he  says,  "  or  a  limb  of  fresh 
carrion  be  on  the  hooks  in  the  tree,  the  hoarse  croak 
of  the  raven  is  sure  immediately  to  be  heard  calling 
his  congeners  to  the  banquet.  We  see  it  daily  in 
its  progress  of  inspection,  or  high  in  the  air  on  a 
transit  to  other  regions,  hastening,  we  conjecture,  to 
some  distant  prey.  With  the  exception  of  the  snipe, 
no  bird  seems  more  universally  spread  over  the  sur- 
face of  our  globe  than  the  raven,  inhabiting  every 
zone,  the  hot,  the  temperate,  the  severe ;  feeding 
upon  and  removing  noxious  substances  from  the 
earth,  of  which  it  obtains  intimation  by  means  of  a 
faculty  we  have  little  conception  of.  Sight  it  can- 
not be ;  and  we  know  not  of  any  fetor  escaping 
from  an  animal  previous  to  putrescence  so  subtile 
as  to  call  these  scavengers  of  nature  from  the  ex- 
tremity of  one  county  to  that  of  another :  for  it  is 
manifest  from  the  height  which  they  preserve  in 
their  flight,  and  the  haste  they  are  making,  that  their 
departure  has  been  from  some  far  distant  station, 
having  a  remote  and  urgent  object  in  contempla- 
tion."* 

Water-birds  (Natatores,  ILLIGER)  might  be  suppo- 
sed, from  the  considerable  development  of  their 
nerves  of  smell,  to  have  this  sense  very  acute.  The 
organs  of  smell  in  the  goose,  however,  are  consid- 
erably less  developed  than  those  of  the  duck.  The 
petrels,  we  might  infer,  ought  to  possess  an  acute 
smell,  as  their  nostrils  are  not  only  large,  but  differ- 
ent from  other  birds  ;  they  project  distinctly  from 
the  beak,  forming  a  singular-looking  sort  of  nose, 
in  some  species,  such  as  the  pintado  petrel  (Procel- 
laria  capensis),  nearly  an  inch  long ;  in  the  giant  pet- 
erel  (P.  gigantea,  GMELIN)  it  is  much  more.  As  these 
birds  do  not  fly  so  high  in  the  air  as  vultures  and 
ravens,  and  live  upon  dead  fish  and  similar  garbage, 
*  Journal  of  a  Naturalist,  p.  172,  3d  edit. 


SMELL.  251 

these  prominent  nostrils  are  probably  intended  to 
render  them 

"  Sagacious  of  their  quarry  from  afar." 

This  opinion  is  rendered  more  probable  from  the 
very  different  structure  of  the  nostrils  in  birds  which 
feed  on  live  fish.  The  pelicans,  for  example,  have 
the  cavity  of  the  nostrils  in  general  very  small,  and 
the  marginal  cartilage,  as  well  as  the  opening  in  the 
bone,  scarcely  perceptible,  even  in  the  skeleton. 
The  cormorant  (Carbo  cormoranus,  MEYER),  again, 
which  is  ranked  in  the  same  group  (Pelecanid^ 
LEACH),  has  the  nostrils  so  small  that  De  Blainville 
says  it  is  with  difficulty  a  very  small  slit  can  be  dis- 
tinguished at  the  base  of  the  bill  in  the  living  birds, 
hence  he  designates  them  by  the  term  Cryptorhinia. 
The  same  author  describes  in  several  species  a  sort 
of  scale  covering  the  nostrils  like  a  lid,  which  must, 
we  should  imagine,  diminish  their  power  of  smell 
by  admitting  only  a  minute  portion  of  the  air  con- 
taining odoriferous  particles.  It  is  worthy  of  re- 
mark, that  the  kingfisher  (Alcedo),  though  not  a 
swimming  bird  like  the  pelicans  and  cormorants, 
has  very  small  nostrils,  with  a  cartilaginous  lid ; 
smell  being,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  of  inferior  mo- 
ment to  them,  inasmuch  as  they  feed  almost  exclu- 
sively on  live  fish,  which  they  must  discover  and 
pursue  by  the  eye. 

In  ducks  (Anatida,  LEACH),  many  of  whom  seek 
their  food  among  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  standing 
water,  the  nerves  of  smell  are  greatly  expanded,  a 
fact  which  has  been  long  known.  "Flat-billed 
birds,"  says  Mr.  Clayton,  "that  grope  for  their 
meat,  have  three  pairs  of  nerves  that  come  into  their 
bills,  whereby  they  have  that  accuracy  to  distin- 
guish what  is  proper  for  food  and  what  to  be  reject- 
ed, by  their  taste,  when  they  do  not  see  it.  This 
was  most  evident  in  a  duck's  bill  and  head ;  ducks 
having  larger  nerves  that  come  into  their  bills  than 


252  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

geese  or  any  other  bird  that  I  have  seen ;  and,  there- 
fore, quaffer  and  grope  out  their  meat  the  most.  But 
then  I  discovered  none  of  these  nerves  in  round- 
billed  birds.  But  since,  in  my  anatomies  in  the 
country,  in  a  rook,  I  first  observed  two  nerves  that 
came  down  between  the  eyes  into  the  upper  bill,  but 
considerably  smaller  than  any  of  the  three  pair  of 
nerves  in  the  bills  of  ducks,  but  larger  than  the 
nerves  of  any  other  round-billed  birds.  And  it  is 
remarkable  that  those  birds,  more  than  any  other 
round-billed  birds,  seem  to  grope  for  their  meat  in 
cowdung."* 

The  facts  thus  proved  by  the  structure  of  the  or- 
gan are  corroborated  by  the  actions  of  the  birds 
themselves.  There  can  be  little  doubt  indeed  that 
animals  may  sometimes  be  deceived  into  eating  what 
is  unwholesome,  or  even  poisonous.  But  this,  it  is 
probable,  happens  much  more  rarely  in  those  en- 
dowed with  acute  smell  than  in  others ;  for,  accord- 
ing to  the  beautiful  remark  of  Cicero,  borrowed,  it 
is  highly  probable,  from  the  Greek  philosophers, 
"  the  nostrils  are  providentially  placed  high,  because 
odours  have  a  tendency  to  rise,  and  are  also  near 
the  mouth  for  the  purpose  of  descriminating  food 
and  drink."  Even  very  young  ducks,  accordingly, 
will  reject  from  the  mud  in  which  they  may  be  fish- 
ing such  substances  as  they  judge  by  smell  to  be 
unfit  for  food,  while  they  will  eagerly  swallow  a  bit 
of  biscuit  which,  for  the  sake  of  experiment,  may 
be  concealed  among  the  mud ;  and  they  will  as  ea- 
gerly seize  and  swallow  any  animal  garbage  which 
they  find  in  the  same  place,  and  which  has  just  been 
rejected  by  their  fellow-swimmers  the  swans,  whose 
food  is  wholly  vegetable.!  Dr.  Darwin  was  there- 
fore in  some  degree  right  in  the  following  remarks, 
though  he  evidently  carries  his  principle  to  ex- 
tremes which  facts  will  not  altogether  justify. 

*  Phil.  Trans.,  No.  206.  f  J.  Rennie. 


TASTE.  253 

"  The  senses  of  smell  and  taste,"  says  the  doctor, 
"  in  many  other  animals,  greatly  excel  those  of  man- 
kind; for  in  civilized  society,  as  our  victuals  are 
generally  prepared  by  others,  and  are  adulterated 
with  salt,  spice,  oil,  and  empyreuma,  we  do  not  hes- 
itate about  eating  whatever  is  set  before  us,  and 
neglect  to  cultivate  these  senses  ;  whereas  other 
animals  try  every  morsel  by  the  smell  before  they 
take  it  into  their  mouths,  and  by  the  taste  before 
they  swallow  it ;  and  are  led  each  to  his  proper 
nourishment  by  this  organ  of  sense."* 

The  woodcock  (Scolopax  rusticola,  CHARLET), 
which  feeds  upon  earthworms,  exhibits  great  dex- 
terity in  discovering  them.  "  These  birds,"  as  Col- 
onel Montagu  says,  "  rambling  through  the  dark,  are 
directed  by  an  exquisite  sense  of  smelling  to  those 
places  most  likely  to  produce  their  natural  suste- 
nance, and  by  a  still  more  exquisite  sense  of  feel- 
ing in  their  long  bill  collecting  their  food.  The  eye 
is  not  called  into  use,  for,  like  the  mole,  they  actu- 
ally feed  below  the  surface ;  and,  by  the  sensibility 
of  the  instrument  which  is  thrust  into  the  soft  earth, 
not  a  worm  can  escape  that  is  within  reach.  A 
woodcock  in  our  menagerie,"  he  adds,  "  very  soon 
discovered  and  drew  forth  every  worm  in  the  ground, 
which  was  dug  up  to  enable  it  to  bore  ;  and  worms 
put  into  a  large  gardenpot,  covered  with  earth  five 
or  six  inches  deep,  are  always  cleared  by  the  next 
morning  without  one  being  left.  The  enormous 
quantity  of  worms  that  these  birds  eat  is  scarcely 
credible  ;  indeed,  it  would  be  the  constant  labour  of 
one  person  to  procure  such  food  for  two  or  three 
woodcocks."! 

Taste  in  Birds.— We  have  tried  numerous  exper- 
iments upon  soft-billed  song-birds  (Sylvicolce,  VIEIL- 
LOT),  which  are,  in  some  measure,  omnivorous,  in 
order  to  discover  whether  or  not  they  were  guided 

*  Zoonomia,  i.,  195.  t  Ornith.  Diet.,  p.  562,  2d  edit. 


254  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

by  taste  in  their  preference  or  rejection  of  certain 
articles.  The  black-cap  (Philomela  atricapilla),  for 
instance,  which  is  very  fond  of  berries,  will  greedi- 
ly devour  those  of  the  elder,  the  privet,  the  honey- 
suckle, and  the  ivy,  as  well  as  currants  and  grapes ; 
but  it  will  not  touch  the  berries  of  the  bitter-sweet 
(Solarium  dulcamara)  which  a  redbreast  in  the  adja- 
cent cage  seemed  to  relish,  while  he  rejected  the 
privet  berries.  What  appeared  to  be  the  most  re- 
markable circumstance  in  these  experiments  was, 
that  the  berries  are  for  the  most  part  swallowed  en- 
tire, without  the  bird  breaking  or  bruising  them  with 
its  bill.  Now  it  is  difficult  for  us  to  conceive  that 
the  berry  could  be  tasted  while  it  remains  unbro- 
ken ;  at  least  our  organs  are  too  obtuse  to  distin- 
guish tastes  under  such  circumstances.* 

The  observations  of  Mr.  Knapp  upon  these  birds 
agree  exactly  with  our  own.  "  Our  gardens,"  he 
says,  "  shrubberies,  and  orchards  become  their  re- 
sort, seeking  for  the  fruits  usually  produced  in  those 
places. 

"All  these  fruit-eating  birds  seem  to  have  a  very 
discriminating  taste,  and  a  decided  preference  for 
the  richest  sorts,  the  sweetest  variety  of  the  goose- 
berry or  the  currant  always  being  selected;  and, 
when  they  are  consumed,  less  saccharine  dainties 
are  submitted  to  :  but  the  hedgeberry  of  the  season 
our  little  foreign  connoisseurs  disdain  to  feed  on, 
leaving  it  for  the  humbler-appetited  natives ;  they  are 
away  to  sunnier  regions  and  more  grateful  food."f 

With  respect  to  insects  and  other  small  animals 
upon  which  the  same  birds  also  feed,  they  are  equal- 
ly nice  in  their  preferences  and  rejections.  We  had 
a  fauvette  (Philomela  hortensis),  for  example,  which 
was  exceedingly  fond  of  spiders  (Phalangium  opilio, 
Epeira  diadema,  cf-c.)?  the  largest  of  which  it  would 
contrive  to  swallow ;  but  the  black-cap,  though  it 

*  J.  Rennie.  t  Journ.  of  a  Naturalist,  p.  232,  3d  edit. 


TASTE.  255 

will  devour  flies  of  every  sort,  will  not  touch  a  spi- 
der, and  while  it  will  eat  almost  any  smooth  cater- 
pillar (Phlogophora  meticulosa,  Mamestra  brassicce, 
tfc.),it  will  not  touch  those  of  the  cabbage  butterfly 
(Pontia  brassica),  which  the  fauvette  devoured  with 
avidity.  Neither  of  these  birds  again,  nor  the  night- 
ingale, will  touch  an  earthworm,  of  which  the  red- 
breast is  very  fond.  No  bird  will  touch  the  cater- 
pillar of  the  magpie  moth. 

These  facts,  and  many  more  of  a  similar  kind, 
which  we  could  easily  enumerate,  fully  authorize 
us,  we  think,  to  conclude,  that  some  birds  at  least 
are  endowed  with  the  faculty  of  taste  ;  though  this 
is  expressly  or  partially  denied  by  certain  authors 
distinguished  for  accuracy  of  observation,  such  as 
Colonel  Montagu  and  M.  Blumenbach,  because  in 
several  species  "  the  tongue  is  horny,  stiff,  not  sup- 
plied with  nerves,  and,  consequently,  unfit  for  an 
organ  of  taste."  But  it  does  not  follow,  because 
the  tongue  in  most  other  animals  is  the  chief  organ 
of  taste,  that  birds  with  a  horny  tongue  destitute  of 
nerves  cannot  discriminate  their  food  by  taste,  since 
other  parts  of  the  mouth  may  perform  this  office ; 
an  inference  rendered  more  probable  from  the 
structure  and  texture  of  the  mouth,  and  from  what 
takes  place  in  man  and  quadrupeds. 

Now  all  birds  possess  a  tongue,  though  in  some 
species,  such  as  the  pelican  (Onocrotalus  pelecanus, 
ALDROVAND),  it  is  so  very  small  that  its  very  exist- 
ence has  been  denied  by  several  good  observers ; 
among  whom,  Willoughby  says,  "  I  could  not  see 
any  tongue ;  but  where  the  root  of  the  tongue  was 
fixed  I  observed  certain  perforate  bodies  :"  and  Ray 
adds,  "  neither  could  Faber,  who  saw  this  same 
bird  afterward  at  Rome,  find  the  tongue,  though  he 
searched  diligently  for  it."*  The  gulls  (Larida, 
LEACH),  and  the  cormorant  (Carlo  carmoranus,  MEY- 

*  Ray's  Willoughby,  Ornith.,  p*  327. 


256  FACULTIES    OF   BIRDS. 

ER),  have,  according  to  M.  de  Blainville,  an  exceed- 
ingly small  tongue,  smooth,  slippery,  without  horny 
texture,  and  with  no  trace  of  papillae."  These 
birds,  however,  feed  chiefly,  if  not  exclusively,  on 
live  fish,  the  species  of  which  require  little  discrim- 
ination, as  no  species,  we  believe,  comes  amiss  to 
them.  The  tongue  in  the  ostrich  (Struthio  Camelus, 
ARISTOTLE),  however,  which  is  an  omnivorous  bird, 
is  also  small.  Baron  Cuvier  describes  it  as  "  short 
and  rounded  like  a  crescent ;"  and  Vallisnieri,  the 
celebrated  Italian  naturalist,  says  it  is  "  very  short, 
similar  to  that  of  fishes,  smooth,  slippery  (lubrica), 
and  without  any  appearance  of  papillae,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Malpighi,  are  the  chief  organs  of  taste ; 
and  indeed  it  heedlessly  swallows  pieces  of  wood, 
stones,  ropes,  bits  of  cloth,  iron,  glass,  and  the  like, 
not  seeming  to  feel  any  taste,  but  foolishly  gulping 
them  down." 

We  think,  on  the  contrary,  the  lubrica  of  his  own 
description  would  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
ostrich  did  possess  taste,  and  that  the  shortness  of 
the  tongue  corresponds  with  the  short  bill. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

WALKING    OF   BIRDS. 

BIRDS,  particularly  small  birds,  appear  to  be  the 
most  restless  of  all  animals ;  a  circumstance  which 
might  lead  us  to  conclude  that  animals  are  restless 
in  proportion  to  their  diminutive  size,  were  this  not 
in  opposition  to  many  other  facts.  The  bee,  for 
example,  is  equally  noted  for  industry  and  bustling 
activity  with  the  ant,  which  is  not  one  fourth  of 
its  size ;  nay,  the  large  wood  ant  (Formica  rufa)  is 


LOCOMOTION.  257 

greatly  more  active  than  the  very  small  black  ant 
(Ponera  contracta,  LATREILLE). 

There  cannot,  however,  be  a  doubt  that  the  wren 
and  the  tomtit  are  more  active  and  restless  than 
the  bustard,  the  ostrich,  or  even  the  eagle ;  and  the 
activity  moreover  of  such  small  birds  is  not,  like 
that  of  the  gnat,  confined  to  an  hour  or  two,  but 
continues  almost  uninterruptedly  during  sunlight, 
sleep  being,  it  would  appear,  less  necessary  than  it 
is  to  larger  animals  to  restore  vigour  after  exertions 
so  long  continued.  Motion  of  some  kind  indeed 
seems  as  indispensable  to  life  as  food  and  air ;  and 
even  the  motions  of  animals,  which  may  be  pri- 
marily accounted  for'by  referring  to  their  exertions 
to  procure  subsistence,  and  shelter,  and  the  like, 
must  always,  in  a  secondary  point  of  view,  give 
them  beneficial  exercise. 

"  All  living  creatures,"  says  Pliny,  "  have  one 
certaine  manner  of  marching  and  going,  according 
to  their  several  kinds,  unto  which  tjiey  keep,  and 
alter  not.  Birds  only  vary  their  course,  whether 
they  go  upon  the  ground  or  flie  in  the  aire.  Some 
walke  their  stations,  as  crows  and  choughs  ;  others 
hop  and  skip,  as  sparrows  and  ousels  :  some  run,  as 
partridges,  woodcocks,  and  snipes;  others  again 
cast  out  their  feet  before  them,  staulk  and  jet  as 
they  go,  as  storks  and  cranes."* 

There  is  a  British  bird,  the  swift  (Cypselus  mura- 
rius,  TEMMINCK),  which  has,  at  least  in  name  (Apus, 
BELON  ;  Hirundo  Apus,  LINNAEUS),  been  represented 
as  destitute  of  feet ;  but  though  its  legs  are  exceed- 
ingly short,  the  structure  of  its  feet  is  admirably 
adapted  to  its  economy.  The  shortness  of  the  legs 
and  the  great  length  of  the  wings  render  it  very 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  for  it  to  rise  from  an 
even  surface,  and,  as  if  conscious  of  this  inability, 
it  is  never  seen  to  light  on  the  ground ;  "  but,"  as 

*  Holland's  Plinie,  x.,  38. 
Y2 


258  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

Dr.  Drummond  well  remarks,  "  there  is  no  imper- 
fection in  this,  for  the  air  and  not  the  ground  is  the 
bird's  place  of  abode."*  The  peculiar  conformation 
of  the  foot  distinguishes  the  swift  from  the  swal- 
lows, and,  indeed,  from  all  other  known  birds ;  for 
though  some  species  have  the  power  of  turning  one 
of  their  toes  either  before  or  behind,  none  but  the 
swift  can  turn  all  the  four  toes  of  the  foot  forward. 
The  least  toe,  also,  which,  following  the  analogy  of 
other  birds,  should  be  the  back  one,  consists  only 
of  a  single  bone,  while  the  other  three  toes  have 
only  two  bones  each;  a  structure  adapted  to  the 
habit  of  the  bird  of  clinging  with  ease  to  the  per- 
pendicular face  of  walls,  and  rocks,  and  eaves  of 
nouses,  aided  by  its  strong,  sharp,  hooked  claws. 
Even  when  the  swift  is  placed  upon  the  ground  it 
cannot  walk,  according  to  White,  but  only  crawl. f 
The  feet  in  swallows,  though  not  quite  so  short 
as  in  the  swift,  are  very  small,  because  its  pre- 
scribed habitstdo  not  require  them  to  be  large.  In 
the  capture  of  its  prey,  for  example,  it  does  not 
employ  its  feet,  and,  to  use  the  words  of  Dr.  Drum- 
mond, it  does  not  require  them  to  be  in  any  partic- 
ular position,  "  as  in  water-birds,  since  it  neither 
dives  nor  swims,  it  does  not  want  long  legs  like  the 
heron,  for  it  has  not  to  obtain  its  food  by  wading 
and  patiently  watching  for  it ;  neither  has  it  occa- 
sion for  the  strong  and  powerful  feet  and  claws  of 
the  bird  of  prey,  because  it  needs  no  instruments  for 
grasping.  In  fact,  the  great  requisite  in  the  foot  of 
the  swallow  is,  that  it  shall  be  formed  without  those 
qualifications  which  are  such  wise  provisions  in  the 
feet  of  most  other  birds,  for  what  is  a  perfection  in 
them  would  be  an  imperfection  in  it.  Its  legs  are 
extremely  short,  and  the  whole  foot  disproportion- 
ately small  and  delicate :  this  forms  the  perfection 
of  the  swallow's  foot ;  and  in  it  we  may  recognise 

*  Letters  to  a  Young  Naturalist,  p.  218. 
t  Selborne,  Lett.  61. 


LOCOMOTION.  259 

another  of  those  admirable  examples  of  Divine  or- 
dinance, which  are  everywhere  before  our  eyes, 
without  our  taking  the  trouble  of  employing  a 
thought  on  the  subject."* 

M.  Montbeillard  says  of  one  species  of  the  dip- 
per (Cat-marin),  that  it  can  only  walk  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  waves,  and  his  intelligent  correspondent 
M.  Baillon,  of  Montrem'l,  says  he  one  day  found  two 
of  these  divers  cast  ashore  by  the  tide,  lying  on  the 
sand,  working  their  feet  and  wings,  and  crawling 
with  difficulty,  so  that  he  gathered  them  like  stones, 
though  they  were  not  hurt  nor  weakly ;  for  upon 
throwing  up  one  of  them,  it  flew  away,  and  dived, 
and  played  on  the  water,  as  if  rejoiced  at  regaining 
its  proper  element. 

The  coot  (Fulica  atra),  like  the  divers,  has  an 
aversion  to  take  wing,  and  can  seldom  be  sprung  in 
its  retreat  at  low  water ;  yet  though  it  walks  rather 
awkwardly,  it  contrives  to  skulk  through  the  grass 
and  reeds  with  considerable  quickness,  the  com- 
pressed form  of  its  body  being  peculiarly  fitted  for 
this  purpose ;  and  we  have  often  marked  its  prog- 
ress by  the  top  of  the  herbage,  on  the  edge  of  a 
lake,  moving  as  if  it  had  been  swept  by  a  narrow 
current  of  wind.  The  same  aversion  to  run  rather 
than  to  take  wing  may  also  be  remarked  in  the  rails 
(Rallidce,  LEACH),  some  of  which  are  landbirds,  and 
among  these  we.may  mention  the  landrail  or  corn- 
crake (Ortygometra  crex,  FLEMING),  a  bird  that  has 
been  said  never  to  take  the  water,  and  keeps  regu- 
larly upon  the  ground,  taking  flight  but  rarely,  and 
never  except  when  compelled  thereto. 

"  We  may  know,"  says  M.  Montbeillard,  "  when 
a  dog  lights  on  the  scent  of  the  corncrake  from  his 
keen  search,  his  number  of  false  tracks,  and  the 
obstinacy  with  which  the  bird  persists  in  keeping 
the  ground,  insomuch  that  it  may  be  sometimes 

*  Letters,  p.  217. 


260  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

caught  by  the  hand ;  it  often  stops  short  and  squats 
down ;  the  dog,  pushing  eagerly  forward,  overshoots 
the  spot,  and  loses  the  trace ;  the  bird,  it  is  said, 
profits  by  its  blunder,  and  runs  back  on  its  path ; 
nor  does  it  spring  till  driven  to  the  last  extremity, 
and  then  it  rises  to  a  good  height  before  it  stretches 
onward.  It  flies  heavily,  and  never  to  a  great  dis- 
tance. It  is  usually  seen  to  alight,  but  in  vain 
should  we  search  for  it;  before  the  fowler  has 
reached  the  spot,  the  bird  has  tripped  off  more  than 
a  hundred  paces.  The  fleetness  of  its  feet  compen- 
sates for  the  tardiness  of  its  wings :  all  its  little  ex- 
cursions, its  windings,  and  its  doublings  in  the  field 
and  meadows,  are  performed  by  running."* 

The  bird,  however,  most  celebrated  for  fleetness 
of  running  is  the  ostrich,  or  bird-camel  (Struthio 
Camelus),  as  it  may  well  be  named.  "  What  time 
she  lifteth  up  herself  on  high,"  says  Job,  "she 
scorneth  the  horse  and  his  rider."f  According  to 
Dr.  Shaw,  the  wings  serve  her  both  for  t sails  "and 
oars,  while  her  feet,  which  have  only  two  toes, 
and  are  not  unlike  the  camel's,  can  bear  great  fa- 
tigue. M.  Montbeillard,  however,  is  of  opinion 
that  it  does  not  spread  its  wings  and  tail-feathers 
with  the  view  of  assisting  its  motion,  but  from  the 
common  effect  of  the  corresponding  muscles,  as  a 
man  in  swimming  throws  out  his  arms.  Though 
the  ostrich  is  universally  admitted  to  run  faster  than 
the  fleetest  horse,  yet  the  Arabs  contrive  to  run 
these  birds  down  on  horseback,  their  feathers  being 
valuable,  and  their  flesh  not  to  be  despised.  The 
best  and  fleetest  horses  are  trained  for  this  chase. 
When  the  hunter  has  started  his  game,  he  puts  his 
horse  upon  a  gentle  gallop,  so  as  to  keep  the  ostrich 
in  sight,  without  coming  too  near  to  alarm  it  and 
put  it  to  its  full  speed.  Upon  observing  itself  pur- 
sued, therefore,  it  begins  to  run  at  first  but  gently, 

*  Oiseaux,  Art.  Le  Rale  de  Genet, 
t  Job  xxxiv.,  18. 


Ostrich  carrying  a  Negro. 


262  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

its  wings,  like  two  arms,  keeping  alternate  motion 
with  its  feet.  It  seldom  runs  in  a  direct  line,  but,  , 
like  the  hare,  doubles,  or,  rather,  courses  in  a  circu- 
lar manner,  while  the  hunters,  taking  the  diameter 
or  tracing  a  smaller  circle,  meet  the  bird  at  unex- 
pected turns,  and  with  less  fatigue  to  the  horses. 
This  chase  is  often  continued  for  a  day  or  two, 
when  the  poor  ostrich  is  starved  out  and  exhaust- 
ed, and,  finding  all  power  of  escape  impossible,  it 
endeavours  to  hide  itself  from  the  enemies  it  can- 
not avoid,  running  into  some  thicket,  or  burying  its 
head  in  the  sand ;  the  hunters  then  rush  in  at  full 
speed,  leading  as  much  as  possible  against  the  wind, 
and  kill  the  bird  with  clubs,  lest  the  feathers  should 
be  soiled  with  blood. 

M.  Adanson  saw  two  tame  ostriches  which  had 
been  kept  two  years  at  the  factory  of  Podor,  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Niger.  "They  were  so 
tame,"  he  says,  "  that  two  little  blacks  mounted 
both  together  on  the  back  of  the  largest :  no  sooner 
did  he  feel  their  weight  than  he  began  to  run  as  fast 
as  ever  he  could,  till  he  carried  them  several  times 
round  the  village,  and  it  was  impossible  to  stop  him 
otherwise  than  by  obstructing  the  passage.  This 
sight  pleased  me  so  well  that  I  would  have  it  re- 
peated, and,  to  try  their  strength,  I  made  a  full- 
grown  negro  mount  the  smallest  and  two  others 
the  largest.  This  burden  did  not  seem  to  me  at  all 
disproportioned  to  their  strength.  At  first  they 
went  a  moderate  gallop ;  when  they  were  heated  a 
little  they  expanded  their  wings  as  if  it  were  to 
catch  the  wind,  and  they  moved  with  such  fleetness 
that  they  seemed  to  be  off  the  ground.  Everybody 
must  some  time  or  other  have  seen  a  partridge  run, 
consequently  must  know  there  is  no  man  what- 
ever able  to  keep  up  with  it,  and  it  is  easy  to  ima- 
gine that  if  this  bird  had  a  longer  step  its  speed 
would  be  considerably  augmented.*  The  ostrich 
moves  like  the  partridge,  with  both  these  advanta- 


LOCOMOTION.  263 

ges,  and  I  am  satisfied  that  those  I  am  speaking  of 
would  have  distanced  the  fleetest  racehorses  that 
were  ever  bred  in  England.  It  is  true  they  would 
not  hold  out  so  long  as  a  horse,  but,  without  all 
doubt,  they  would  be  able  to  perform  the  race  in 
less  time.  I  have  frequently  beheld  this  sight, 
which  is  capable  of  giving  one  an  idea  of  the  pro- 
digious strength  of  an  ostrich,  and  of  showing  what 
use  it  might  be  of  had  we  but  the  method  of  break- 
ing it  and  managing  it  as  we  do  a  horse."* 

The  traveller,  Moore,  mentions  that  he  saw  a 
man  journeying  mounted  upon  an  ostrich,  though 
both  this  and  the  instance  given  by  M.  Adanson 
show  the  circumstance  to  be  of  unusual  occur- 
rence. 

The  bustard  (Otis  tarda,  RAY)  is  very  similar  to 
the  ostrich  in  its  faculty  of  running,  being  so  fleet 
as  to  be  hunted  with  greyhounds,  a  sport  followed 
even  by  the  ancient  Greeks,  as  we  learn  from  Xen- 
ophon  and  ^Elian.  The  male  of  this  species  is 
furnished  with  a  singular  bag  or  pouch,  opening 
under  the  tongue,  and  hanging  down  on  the  fore- 
part of  the  gullet  as  low  as  the  middle  of  the  neck. 
This  seems  to  have  been  first  observed  by  Aris- 
totle, but  was  particularly  described  by  Dr.  Doug- 
las, who  imagined  it  was  intended  as  a  reservoir 
for  water,  indispensable  in  the  extensive  arid  plains 
which  it  inhabits.  He  found  it  capacious  enough 
to  hold  several  quarts  of  water.  Colonel  Monta- 
gu, however,  seems  to  be  somewhat  skeptical  upon 
this  point.  "We  think  it  impossible,"  he  says, 
"  the  bird  could  fly  with  such  an  addition  of  weight 
before  its  wings  which  would  throw  it  out  of  the 
centre  of  gravity.  We  see  the  heron,  and  many 
other  birds,  obliged  to  extend  their  legs  behind,  and 
contract  their  necks  when  flying,  in  order  to  bal- 
ance themselves  on  the  wing."  It  would  appear, 

*  Voyage  to  Senegal,  Pinkerton's  Collection,  xvi.,  69. 


264  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

indeed,  from  the  observations  of  Sir  Everard  Home, 
that  Montagu's  objections  are  valid,  for  in  the  adju- 
tant (Cicoma  argala,  TEMMINCK),  which  has  a  bag 
precisely  similar,  he  found  that  it  contained  "no- 
thing but  air,  which  the  bird  has  a  power  of  expel- 
ling and  filling  the  bag  again  at  pleasure."  In  the 
adjutant  the  bag  communicates  with  the  large  air- 
cells  on  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  therefore  we 
may  fairly  conclude  it  is  intended  to  render  the 
birds  light  and  buoyant  for  running,  since  they  are 
too  heavy  to  fly  without  considerable  difficulty. 

These  birds  are  remarkable  for  the  length  of  their 
legs,  which  must  be  very  advantageous  for  swift- 
ness of  running  ;  but  it  would  be  wrong  to  infer,  as 
a  general  principle,  that  all  birds  with  long  legs  are 
swiftfooted.  On  the  contrary,  the  wading  birds 
(Grallatores,  ILLIGER),  which  have  proportionably 
much  longer  legs  than  the  ostrich  or  the  bustard, 
are  not  well  adapted  for  walking  on  land.  Among 
these  the  flamingo  (Ph&nicopterus  rubur)  is  one  of 
the  longest-legged  birds,  yet  it  is  in  this  respect 
far  exceeded  by  the  stilt  (Himantopus  melanopterus, 
MEYER),  and  the  legs  in  the  latter  are,  besides,  slen- 
der and  even,  "  so  flexible,"  as  Wilson  says  of  the 
American  stilt,  "  that  they  may  be  bent  considera- 
bly without  danger  of  breaking."*  Aldrovand  men- 
tions its  pace  as  slow  and  laborious,  and  White  of 
Selborne  says,  "  it  must  be  matter  of  great  curiosi- 
ty to  see  it  move,  to  observe  how  it  can  wield  such 
a  length  of  lever  with  such  feeble  muscles  as  the 
thighs  seem  to  be  furnished  with.  At  best  one 
should  expect  it  to  be  but  a  bad  walker ;  but  what 
adds  to  the  wonder  is,  that  it  has  no  back  toe. 
Now,  without  that  steady  prop  to  support  its  steps, 
it  must  be  liable  in  speculation  to  perpetual  vacil- 
lations, and  seldom  able  to  preserve  the  true  centre 
of  gravity."!  The  truth  is,  that  the  legs  are  not 
formed  for  walking,  but  for  wading ;  and  we  have 

*  Amer.  Ornith.,  vii.,  55.  f  Letter  91. 


Himantopus  melanapterus—The  Stilt.     (A  duck  has  been  introducec 
to  show  by  comparison  the  great  length  of  the  stilt's  legs.) 


266  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

the  testimony  of  Wilson  that  the  American  species 
wades  "  with  expedition  and  without  fatigue."* 

The  reasoning  of  naturalists,  indeed,  respecting 
the  conformation  of  the  feet  of  birds  is,  when  not 
derived  from  living  specimens,  as  frequently  wrong 
as  right.  It  has  been  usual,  for  example,  since  the 
time,  if  we  mistake  not,  of  Gesner  and  Aldrovand, 
to  consider  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  foot  in  par- 
rots and  woodpeckers,  with  two  toes  before  and 
two  behind,  as  so  peculiarly  characteristic  of  climb- 
ing birds,  that  in  systematic  classifications  the  birds 
which  have  their  toes  so  placed  are  denominated 
climbing  birds  (Scansores,  ILLIGER  ;  Grimpeurs,  LA- 
CEPEDE).  But,  unfortunately  for  this  division,  many 
species  which  have  the  feet  so  constructed  have 
never  been  observed  to  climb,  such  as  the  cuckoo 
and  the  wryneck,  while  many  species  which  do 
climb,  such  as  the  nuthatch  (Sitta)  and  the  creeper 
(Certhia),  have  their  toes  placed  in  the  usual  man- 
ner. 

White's  remarks  on  the  walk  of  birds  are  well 
worth  quoting.  "  Most  small  birds,"  he  says, "  hop ; 
but  wagtails  and  larks  walk,  moving  their  legs  al- 
ternately ;  all  the  duck  kind  waddle ;  divers  and 
auks  walk  as  if  fettered,  and  stand  erect  on  their 
tails ;  crows  and  daws  swagger  in  their  walk ; 
woodpeckers  use  their  tails,  which  incline  down- 
ward, as  a  support  when  they  run  up  trees ;  parrots, 
like  all  other  hookclawed  birds,  walk  awkwardly, 
and  make  use  of  their  bill  as  a  third  foot,  climbing 
and  descending  with  ridiculous  caution.  All  the 
poultry  (Gallina)  parade  and  walfc.  gracefully  and 
run  nimbly."! 

One  of  the  most  singular  circumstances  which  we 
have  met  with  respecting  the  walk  of  birds  occurs 
in  the  Chinese  jacana  (Parra  sinensis,  LATHAM), 
whose  enormously  long  toes  enable  it  to  walk  with 
agility  from  leaf  to  leaf  of  the  great  water-lily. 

*  Amer.  Ornith.,  vii.,  55.        f  Selbome,  Letter  84. 


The  Jacana  (Parra  sinensis)  walking  on  the  floating  leaves  of  the 
water-lily. 


268  FACULTIES   OP   BIRDS. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

FLIGHT    OF   BIRDS. 

THE  flying  of  a  bird  in  the  air  is  performed  on 
similar  principles  to  that  of  a  fish  swimming  in  the 
water,  with  this  difference,  that  the  bird  is  more 
heavy,  in  comparison  with  the  air,  than  the  fish  in 
comparison  with  the  water.  At  first  view,  it  might 
be  thought  impossible  for  so  huge  an  animal  as  the 
Ostend  whale  (Balanoptera  loops  ?),  weighing  four 
hundred  and  eighty  thousand  pounds,  to  swim  in 
the  sea,  considering  that  its  body,  so  far  as  the 
bones  and  muscles  were  concerned,  must  have  been 
considerably  heavier  than  water.  Yet,  by  a  singu- 
lar contrivance,  it  is  at  once  buoyed  up  in  the  sea, 
and  rendered  so  much  lighter  than  water,  that  it 
floats  on  the  surface  when  dead.  This  consists  in 
an  enormous  layer  of  an  oily  substance  called  blub- 
ber, immediately  under  the  skin.  We  are  well  jus- 
tified in  using  the  epithet  "  enormous,"  from  the 
fact  that  in  the  Ostend  whale  the  blubber  measured 
four  thousand  gallons,  and  weighed  a  twelfth  of  the 
whole  body.  With  a  large  proportion,  therefore,  of 
a  light  body  like  this  to  buoy  it  up,  so  far  from  find- 
ing it  difficult  to  swim,  it  would  require  a  great  ef- 
fort in  order  to  dive  deep  into  the  water. 

In  fishes  (for  the  whale,  being  a  warm-blooded 
animal,  and  breathing  the  air,  is  not  considered  a 
fish),  the  buoyancy  indispensable  for  swimming  is 
effected  by  a  very  different  contrivance.  A  blad- 
der, varying  in  form  in  different  species,  is  filled 
with  air  (azote  in  fresh  water,  and  carbonic  acid  gas 
in  marine,  fishes),  over  which  the  animal  appears  to 
possess  a  voluntary  power,  either  to  empty  it  by 


FLIGHT. 


269 


compression  or  fill  it  by  distension.  Now  it  is  ob- 
vious that,  by  the  effort  to  compress  the  swimming- 
bladder,  the  body  of  the  fish  must  be  contracted, 
and,  consequently,  as  the  absolute  weight  may  be 


Swimming-Bladders. — A,  In  the  Dace :  a,  the  stomach ;  b,  the 
swimming-bladder.— B,  In  the  Conger  Eel :  a,  the  stomach ; 
b  6,  the  swimming-bladder. 

considered  the  same,  or,  as  the  mathematicians  say, 
a  constant  quantity,  the  specific  gravity,  upon  which 
the  buoyancy  depends,  must  increase,  and  the  fish 
must  accordingly  sink.  On  the  other  hand,  by  the 
effort  to  distend  the  swimming-bladder,  the  muscles 
Z2 


270  FACULTIES    OF   BIRDS. 

are  relaxed,  and  the  whole  body  not  only  becomes 
specifically  lighter,  but  the  included  air  expands,  and 
buoys  up  the  fish.  The  truth  of  this  explanation 
has  been  tried  by  the  experiment  of  pricking  the 
bladder  and  allowing  the  air  to  escape,  when  the 
fish  sinks  and  cannot  rise  above  the  bottom  of  the 
water  ;*  but  when  a  fish  dies  it  floats  to  the  sur- 
face, because  it  would  appear,  from  the  want  of 
voluntary  compression,  the  swimming-bladder  then 
expands  to  its  utmost  dimensions ;  at  least  we  have 
always,  in  dead  fishes,  observed  it  to  be  much  dis- 
tended. 

The  contrivance  for  rendering  birds  buoyant  in 
the  air  is  considerably  different  from  either  of 
these,  and  was  first  discovered  by  the  celebrated 
Harvey ;  at  least,  he  says,  he  does  "  not  remember 
it  to  have  been  previously  observed  by  anybody." 
Air  in  considerable  volume  is  introduced  into  the 
body,  though  it  is  not,  as  in  fishes,  contained  in  one 
cavity,  but  is  distributed  into  numerous  cells  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  body.  The  lungs,  compared 
with  those  of  quadrupeds,  are  rather  small,  but  the 
aircells  with  which  they  communicate  occupy  a 
considerable  extent  of  the  chest  and  belly.  These 
cells  are  much  divided  by  partitions,  furnished,  as 
has  been  observed  in  large  birds,  with  muscular 
fibres,  supposed  to  be  employed  in  sending  the  air 
back  to  the  lungs,  as  is  done  by  the  diaphragm  in 
other  animals,  and  which  is  wanting  in  birds.  This 
is  no  doubt  the  reason  why  birds  appear  to  pant  so 
much  in  breathing,  a.much  greater  portion  of  the 
body  being  always  put  in  motion  than  in  quadru- 


Besides  these  aircells,  which  fill  the  whole  cavity 
of  the  body  from  the  neck  downward,  and  serve  the 
double  purpose  of  assisting  in  the  assimilation  of 
nutriment  by  the  supply  of  oxygen  and  the  remo- 

*  Ray  in  Phil.  Trans.,  No.  114-15. 


FLIGHT.  271 

val  of  carbon,  and  of  diminishing  the  weight  of  the 
body,  there  are  others  situated  in  the  bones  them- 
selves, particularly  the  larger  bones,  both  those 
which  are  cylindrical  and  those  which  are  broad 
and  angular.  It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  all 
these  bones  in  birds  are  (at  least  in  the  middle)  des- 
titute of  marrow ;  and,  as  Camper  has  shown,  are 
furnished  with  openings  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
municating with  the  lungs.  Experienced  observ- 
ers can  tell,  from  inspecting  the  bone  of  a  full- 
grown  bird,  whether  or  not  it  contains  aircells, 
without  even  seeing  any  of  the  openings  through 
which  the  air  enters,  for  such  bones  are,  for  the 
most  part,  of  a  purer  white,  and  sometimes  the 
bone  is  so  thin  that  the  cells  may  be  seen  through 
it ;  yet  such  appearances  are  not  always  to  be 
trusted.  The  openings  ought,  therefore,  in  these 
investigations,  to  be  sought  for,  though  they  are 
sometimes  not  a  little  difficult  to  discover.  In  the 
long  bones,  we  may  mention,  they  are  generally 
situated  close  to  one  of  the  extremities,  while  in 
bones  in  pairs  there  is,  for  the  most  part,  only  one 
common  opening. 

"  The  airbones  in  young  birds"  are  described  to 
be  "  filled  with  marrow,  which  becomes  gradually 
absorbed  to  make  room  for  the  admission  of  air. 
This  gradual  expansion  of  the  aircells  and  absorp- 
tion of  the  marrow  can  nowhere  be  observed  so 
well  as  in  the  young  tame  geese,  when  killed  in 
different  periods  of  the  autumn  and  winter.  The 
limits  to  the  aircells  may  be  clearly  seen  from 
without  by  the  transparency  of  the  bony  walls. 
From  week  to  week  the  aircells  increase  in  size, 
till,  towards  the  close  of  the  season,  the  airbones 
become  transparent.  In  all  these  bones  the  mar- 
row first  disappears  from  the  vicinity  of  the  open- 
ing which  admits  the  air,  and  continues  longest  at 
the  points  farther  removed  from  this  opening.  To- 
wards the  close  of  the  summer  and  beginning  of  au- 


272  FACULTIES  OF  BIRDS. 

tumn,  although  in  external  appearance  the  young 
goose  resembles  the  parent,  no  trace  of  aircells 
can  be  discovered  in  its  bones,  the  interior  of  the 
bones  being  then  filled  with  marrow.  About  the 
fifth  or  sixth  month  the  marrow  begins  to  disap- 
pear. This  circumstance,  which  applies  also  to 
other  birds,  shows  with  what  caution  one  should 
form  an  opinion,  from  young  birds  only,  on  the 
size  of  the  aircells.  In  many  kinds  of  birds  the 
aircells  of  some  bones  are  nearly  fully  developed, 
although  they  have  the  openings  of  the  bones  which 
lead  to  the  aircells."* 

Not  only  the  bones,  but  the  quills  of  the  feathers 
also  make  a  part  of  this  contrivance.  These,  while 
growing,  are  filled  with  an  organized  pulp ;  but  as 
soon  as  they  arrive  at  their  full  growth,  this  pulp, 
being  absorbed,  renders  them  light,  and  the  lightness 
is  increased  by  air  from  the  atmosphere  being  in- 
troduced into  their  cavity  through  a  small  opening 
at  the  termination  of  the  furrow  where  the  quill  or 
barrel  ends  and  the  plumelets  of  the  feather  begin. 
Air  is  also  introduced  in  a  similar  manner  into  the 
plumelets  themselves. 

"  In  a  journey,"  says  M.  Tachard,  "  which  we 
made  to  the  loadstone  mine,  M.  de  la  Marre  wound- 
ed one  of  these  large  birds  which  our  people  call 
Grand  Gosier,  and  the  Siamese  Noktho  ....  Its 
spread  wings  measured  seven  feet  and  a  half.  On 
dissection  we  found,  under  the  fleshy  panicles,  very 
delicate  membranes,  which  enveloped  the  whole 
body,  which,  folding  differently,  formed  many  con- 
siderable pouches,  particularly  between  the  thighs 
and  the  belly ;  between  the  wings  and  the  ribs,  and 
under  the  craw,  some  were  so  wide  as  to  admit  the 
two  fingers  ;  these  great  pouches  divided  into  many 
little  ducts,  which,  by  perpetual  subdivision,  ran  into 
an  endless  multitude  of  ramifications,  which  were 

*  Blumenbach,  Comp.  Anat.,  §  182. 


FLIGHT.  273 

perceptible  only  by  the  bubbles  of  air  which  infla- 
ted them ;  insomuch  that,  pressing  the  body  of  this 
bird,  one  heard  a  little  noise  like  that  produced  by 
pressing  the  membranous  parts  of  an  animal  which 
has  been  inflated.  By  the  assistance  of  the  probe 
and  blowing,  we  discovered  the  communication  of 
these  membranes  with  the  lungs."* 

Besides  the  aircells  filled  from  the  lungs,  there 
are  others  filled  directly  from  the  mouth  and  nos- 
trils through  the  windpipe.  The  latter,  particularly 
in  birds  of  prey  and  high-flying  birds  (Alauda,  Cico- 
nia,  4-c.),  are  very  large,  ascending  beneath  the  skin 
of  the  neck  and  shoulders  and  around  the  scull. 
"  In  the  stork,"  says  Doctor  Macartney,  "  we  find 
these  cells  large  enough  to  admit  the  finger  to  pass 
a  considerable  way  down  upon  the  inside  and  back 
of  the  wing :  they  are  also  large  in  the  owl."f 

It  is  evident  that  all  this  extraordinary  number 
and  volume  of  aircells,  as  well  as  the  very  great 
strength  observable  in  the  bones  of  birds,  is  for  the 
express  purpose  of  rendering  them  light  and  buoy- 
ant, so  that  they  may  support  themselves  in  the  air 
with  less  effort. 

The  following  excellent  remarks  on  the  structure, 
which  is  so  admirably  adapted  for  rendering  birds 
light  and  buoyant,  are  by  Sir  Charles  Bell : 

"  First,"  he  says,  "  it  is  necessary  that  birds,  as 
they  are  buoyed  in  the  air,  be  specifically  lighter ; 
secondly,  the  circumference  of  their  thorax  must  be 
extended,  and  the  motions  of  their  ribs  limited,  that 
the  muscles  of  the  wings  may  have  sufficient  space 
and  firmness  for  their  attachment.  Both  these  ob- 
jects are  attained  by  a  modification  of  the  apparatus 
of  breathing.  The  lungs  are  highly  vascular  and 
spongy,  but  they  are  not  distended  with  air.  The 
air  is  drawn  through  their  substance  into  the  large 

*  Hist.  G6ner.  des  Voyages,  he.,  311. 
t  Rees'  Cyclopaedia,  Art.  Birds. 


274  FACULTIES    OF   BIRDS. 

cavity  common  to  the  chest  and  abdomen;  while 
the  great  office  of  decarbonization  of  the  blood  is 
securely  performed,  advantage  is  taken  to  let  the  air 
into  all  the  cavities,  even  into  those  of  the  bones. 

"  The  weight  of  the  body  being  a  necessary  con- 
comitant of  muscular  strength,  we  see  why  birds, 
by  reason  of  their  lightness,  as  well  as  by  the  con- 
formation of  their  skeleton,  walk  badly.  And,  on 
the  other  hand,  in  observing  how  this  lightness  is 
adapted  for  flight,  it  is  remarkable  how  small  an  ad- 
dition to  their  body  will  prevent  them  rising  on  the 
wing.  If  the  griffin-vulture  be  frightened  after  his 
repast,  he  must  disgorge  before  he  flies ;  and  the 
condor,  in  the  same  circumstances,  is  taken  by  the 
Indians,  like  a  quadruped,  by  throwing  the  lasso 
over  it.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  the  relations  of 
great  functions  in  the  animal  economy  :  birds  are 
oviparous,  because  they  never  could  have  risen  on 
the  wing  had  they  been  viviparous  ;  if  the  full  stom- 
ach of  a  carnivorous  bird  retard  its  flight,  we  per- 
ceive that  it  could  not  have  carried  its  young.  The 
light  body,  the  quill-feathers,  the  bill,  and  the  laying 
of  eggs,  are  all  necessarily  connected. 

"  As  every  one  must  have  observed,  the  breast- 
bone of  birds  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  body ; 
and  owing  to  this  extension,  a  lesser  degree  of  mo- 
tion suffices  to  respiration ;  so  that  a  greater  surface, 
necessary  for  the  lodgment  and  attachment  of  the 
muscles  of  the  wings,  is  obtained,  while  that  surface 
is  less  disturbed  by  the  action  of  breathing,  and  is 
more  steady.  Another  peculiarity  of  the  skeleton 
of  the  bird  is  the  consolidation  of  the  vertebrae  of 
the  back ;  a  proof,  if  any  were  now  necessary,  that 
the  whole  system  of  bones  conforms  to  that  of  the 
extremities,  the  firmer  texture  of  the  bones  of  the 
trunk  being  a  part  of  the  provision  for  the  attach- 
ment of  the  muscles  of  the  wings.  The  ostrich  and 
cassowary,  which  are  rather  runners  than  fliers, 
have  the  spine  loose. 


FLIGHT.  275 

"  The  vertebrae  of  the  back  being  fixed  in  birds, 
and  the  pelvis  reaching  high,  there  is  no  motion  in 
the  body ;  indeed,  if  there  were,  it  would  be  inter- 
rupted by  the  sternum.  We  cannot  but  admire, 
therefore,  the  composition  of  the  neck  and  head, 
and  how  the  extension  of  the  vertebrae,  and  the 
length  and  pliability  of  the  neck,  while  they  give  to 
the  bill  the  office  of  a  hand,  become  a  substitution 
for  the  loss  of  motion  in  the  body,  by  balancing  the 
whole,  as  in  standing,  running,  or  flying.  Is  it  not 
curious  to  observe  how  the  whole  skeleton  is  adapt- 
ed to  this  one  object,  the  power  of  the  wings  ? 

"  While  the  ostrich  has  no  keel  in  its  breastbone, 
birds  of  passage  are,  on  dissection,  recognisable  by 
the  depth  of  this  ridge  of  the  sternum.  The  reason 
is,  that  the  angle  formed  by  this  process,  and  the 
body  of  the  bone,  affords  lodgment  for  the  pectoral 
muscle,  the  powerful  muscle  of  the  wing.  In  this 
sketch  of  the  dissection  of  the  swallow,  there  is  a 
curious  resemblance  to  the  human  arm  ;  and  we 
cannot  fail  to  observe,  that  the  pectoral  muscle  con- 
stitutes the  greater  part  of  the  bulk  of  the  body. 
Borelli  makes  the  pectoral  muscles  of  a  bird  exceed 
in  weight  all  the  other  muscles  taken  together, 
while  the  pectoral  muscles  of  man  are  but  a  seven- 
tieth part  of  the  whole  mass  of  the  muscles.  And 
here  we  see  the  correspondence  between  the 
strength  of  this  muscle  and  the  rate  of  flying  of  the 
swallow,  which  is  a  mile  in  a  minute,  for  ten  hours 
every  day,  or  six  hundred  miles  a  day.  Mr.  White 
says  truly,  that  the  swift  lives  on  the  wing ;  it  eats, 
drinks,  and  collects  materials  for  its  nest  in  flying, 
and  never  rests  but  during  darkness.  If  it  be  true 
that  birds,  when  migrating,  require  a  wind  that  blows 
against  them,  it  implies  an  extraordinary  power  as 
well  as  continuance  of  muscular  exertion. 

"  We  see  how  Nature  completes  her  work,  when 
the  intention  is  that  the  animal  shall  rise  buoyant 
and  powerful  in  the  air :  the  whole  texture  of  the 


276  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

frame  is  altered  and  made  light,  in  a  manner  con- 
sistent with  strength.  We  see,  also,  how  the  mech- 
anism of  the  anterior  extremity  is  changed,  and  the 
muscles  of  the  trunk  differently  directed."* 

Though  it  is  obvious  that  birds  could  not  fly  with- 
out wings,  yet  the  peculiar  mechanism  of  the  pro- 
cess is  not,  we  believe,  generally  understood.  It  is 
no  uncommon  thing  to  see  a  goose,  while  walking 
on  the  common,  spread  out  its  wings  to  their  full 
extent,  and  begin  to  flap  them  about  with  great  vio- 
lence, and  yet  the  bird  is  not  thereby  moved  an  inch 
from  the  ground ;  a  circumstance  that,  without  in- 
quiry into  the  cause,  seems  contrary  to  what  might 
have  been  anticipated.  By  observing  the  difference 
between  this  ground-flying  (if  we  may  call  it  so)  of 
the  goose,  and  the  actual  rising  of  a  pheasant,  for 
example,  into  the  air,  we  may  arrive  at  the  reason 
why  the  goose  does  not,  while  the  pheasant  does, 
ascend.  The  goose,  it  may  be  remarked,  keeps  her 
wings  spread  both  in  the  upward  and  the  down- 
ward motion,  and,  consequently,  the  resistance  of 
the  air  in  the  first  case  will  press  her  body  down- 
ward rather  than  upward  ;  while,  as  her  evident  in- 
tention is  not  to  rise  above  the  ground,  she  forcibly 
expels  the  air  from  her  aircells,  as  may  be  infer- 
red from  the  screaming  always  uttered  on  those 
occasions,  and  caused,  we  have  reason  to  believe, 
by  the  forcible  expulsion  of  the  air.  Her  body  is 
thus  rendered  specifically  heavier,  and,  consequent- 
ly, resists  the  upward  impulse  given  by  the  down- 
ward motion  of  the  wings.  The  pheasant,  on  the 
other  hand,  instead  of  expelling  the  air,  takes  a  deep 
inspiration,  increasing  the  size  of  the  body  as  much 
as  possible,  inflating  at  the  same  time  the  wing-feath- 
ers, and  bulging  them  outward  without  separating 
their  tips  from  the  sides.  While  taking  deep  inspi- 
rations, he  may  be  observed,  also,  several  times 

*  Bridgewater  Treatise  on  the  Hand,  p.  77. 


FLIGHT.  277 

rising  on  tiptoe,  and  puffing  out  and  balancing  his 
body,  to  feel  whether  he  has  thrown  enough  of  air 
into  the  bones  and  feathers  to  float  him  along.  He 
then  crouches  back  in  order  to  give  additional  force 
to  his  spring,  and  forthwith  leaps  up  into  the  air,  at 
the  same  time  rapidly  raising  his  wings  from  the 
sides,  but  keeping  the  individual  feathers  close  to- 
gether like  a  folded  fan,  which  he  takes  care  not  to 
open  till  he  begins  to  bring  them  down.  For  this 
purpose  he  spreads  them  out  to  their  utmost  ex- 
tent, and  then  striking  the  air  with  all  his  force,  its 
resistance  pushes  him  upward,  and  he  bounds  aloft 
towards  his  tree-perch,  or  wherever  else  he  wishes 
to  go.  The  same  series  of  motions,  first  raising 
the  folded  wings,  and  then  forcibly  bringing  down 
the  spread  wings,  must  be  incessantly  repeated  du- 
ring the  flight  of  every  bird ;  in  the  same  way  a 
swimmer,  by  pressing  the  water  downward  with 
his  spread  hands,  keeps  himself  afloat,  and,  by  di- 
recting the  motion  obliquely  backward,  is  thereby 
pushed  forward.  It  may  also  be  remarked,  that 
the  swimmer  raises  his  hands  before  renewing  the 
stroke  with  the  fingers  closed,  slanting,  in  a  similar 
way  to  the  bird  raising  its  folded  wings,  so  as  to 
dimmish  the  surface  opposed  to  the  resisting  me- 
dium. The  direction  in  which  a  bird  can  fly  de- 
pends greatly  on  the  form  of  its  wings ;  and  hence 
Sir  Everard  Home  justly  infers,  that  a  motion  di- 
rectly upward  can  only  be  performed  by  birds  whose 
wings  are  nearly  horizontal,  as  the  lark  and  the 
quail.  "  In  general,"  he  says,  "  the  wings  are  pla- 
ced oblique  :  this  is  principally  owing  to  the  length 
of  their  feathers,  the  fixed  point  of  which  is  at 
the  root.  When  birds  fly  horizontally,  their  mo- 
tion is  not  in  a  straight  line,  but  obliquely  upward, 
and  they  allow  the  body  to  come  down  to  a  lower 
level  before  a  second  stroke  is  made  by  the  wings, 
so  that  they  move  in  a  succession  of  curves.  To 
ascend  obliquely,  the  wings  must  repeat  their 
A  A 


278  FACULTIES    OF   BIRDS. 

strokes  upon  the  air  in  quick  succession;  and  in 
descending  obliquely,  these  actions  are  proportion- 
ally slower. 

"  In  birds  of  prey  the  form  of  the  wings  is  very 
oblique,  so  that  they  cannot  rise  in  the  air  perpen- 
dicularly unless  they  fly  against  the  wind;  they 
have,  however,  a  greater  power  of  horizontal  mo- 
tion than  other  birds,  because  the  extreme  parts  of 
the  wings  are  long,  and  the  ends  of  the  feathers  lap 
over  each  other,  which  opposes  a  uniform  resist- 
ance to  the  air ;  while  in  other  birds  the  air  passes 
through  between  the  feathers,  which  lessens  the 
power  of  keeping  the  wing  oblique.  To  enable 
themselves  to  turn  to  the  right  or  left,  they  move 
one  wing  more  rapidly  than  the  other.  This  is  at- 
tended with  difficulty  when  the  flight  is  rapid ;  they 
therefore  make  a  large  sweep  before  they  can  turn 
round."* 

In  the  ingenious  attempts  which  have  been  made 
to  devise  wings  to  enable  men  to  fly  in  the  air,  it 
has  rarely  been  taken  into  account  that  the  muscles 
of  the  most  powerful  arm  are  proportionably  slen- 
der and  weak  when  compared  with  the  wing-mus- 
cles of  birds;  and,  therefore,  even  if  wings  suffi- 
ciently efficient  could  be  contrived,  the  arms  would 
be  too  feeble  to  wield  them,  considering  also  that 
there  are  no  aircells  distributed  through  the  human 
body  as  in  birds,  to  diminish  its  specific  gravity  by 
inflation. 

*  Home,  Comp.  Anat.,  i.,  8. 


MIGRATION.  279 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

MIGRATION    OF    BIRDS. 

FEW  subjects  connected  with  natural  history  are 
more  interesting,  or  have  more  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  ordinary  observers,  than  the  periodical  ap- 
pearance and  disappearance  of  certain  species  of 
birds.  These  curious  phenomena  have  been  no- 
ticed in  all  ages  and  countries ;  the  sages  of  old,  as 
well  as  the  scientific  of  our  own  days,  have  looked 
upon  them  with  interest ;  and  to  the  agriculturist, 
the  shepherd,  and  all  whose  occupations  lead  them 
to  the  fields,  the  woods,  or  the  hills,  they  are  in 
some  measure  familiar.  Even  the  inspired  seer 
has  found  in  them  an  illustration  suited  to  his  pur- 
pose :  "  The  stork  in  the  heaven,"  says  the  prophet 
Jeremiah,  "knoweth  her  appointed  times;  and  the 
turtle,  and  the  crane,  and  the  swallow  observe  the 
'time  of  their  coming." 

The  regular  appearance  and  disappearance  of 
some  species  of  birds  excited  the  curiosity  of  ob- 
servers in  all  ages,  and  led  to  many  conjectures  re- 
specting its  causes.  It  was  long  alleged  and  be- 
lieved that  swallows,  instead  of  removing  to  warmer 
climates,  lie  concealed  in  fissures  of  rocks,  in  sand- 
banks, in  the  holes  of  decayed  trees,  and  even  at 
the  bottom  of  the  water  in  ponds,  remaining  during 
the  winter  in  a  torpid  state.  "  It  is  certain,"  says 
the  Dutch  naturalist  Jonston,  "  that  in  hollow  trees, 
lying  many  close  together,  they  preserve  them- 
selves by  mutual  heat."  "  In  certain  woods  of  Up- 
per Germany,"  says  the  author  of  the  Physicae 
Curiosae,  "  upon  cutting  up  a  rotten  oak-tree,  it  has 
been  found  full  of  swallows."  He  does  not  quote 


280  FACULTIES    OF   BIRDS. 

his  authority,  but  we  find  the  same  circumstance 
reported  by  Albertus  Magnus,  Gaspar  Heldelin,  Au- 
gustine Niphus,  and  others. 

Unfortunately  for  the  credibility  of  such  accounts, 
however,  they  all  wear  the  aspect  of  fanciful  con- 
jecture rather  than  of  a  fact  actually  observed  ;  and 
though  we  have  accounts  of  similar  circumstances 
purporting  to  be  from  actual  observation,  they  all 
appear  suspicious  when  strictly  investigated. 

The  following  narrative  by  M.  Achard  was  com- 
municated to  the  Royal  Society  by  Mr.  Peter  Col- 
linson.  "In  the  latter  end  of  March,"  says  he,  "I 
took  my  passage  down  the  Rhine  to  Rotterdam. 
A  little  below  Basil,  the  south  bank  of  the  river  was 
very  high  and  steep,  of  a  sandy  soil,  sixty  or  eighty 
feet  above  the  water. 

"  I  was  surprised  at  seeing  near  the  top  of  the 
cliff  some  boys  tied  to  ropes,  hanging  down  doing 
something.  The  singularity  of  these  adventurous 
boys,  and  the  business  they  so  daringly  attempted, 
made  us  stop  our  navigation  to  inquire  into  the 
meaning  of  it.  The  waterman  told  us  they  were 
reaching  the  holes  in  the  cliffs  for  swallows  or  mar- 
tins, which  took  refuge  in  them,  and  remained  there 
all  the  winter,  until  warm  weather,  and  then  they 
came  abroad.  The  boys  being  let  down  by  their 
comrades  to  the  holes,  put  in  a  long  rammer,  with 
a  screw  at  the  end,  such  as  is  used  to  unload  guns, 
and,  twisting  it  about,  drew  out  the  birds.  For  a 
trifle  I  procured  some  of  them.  When  I  first  had 
them,  they  seemed  stiff  and  lifeless ;  I  put  one  of 
them  in  my  bosom,  between  my  skin  and  shirt,  and 
laid  another  on  a  board,  the  sun  shining  full  and 
warm  upon  it ;  and  one  or  two  of  my  companions 
did  the  like.  That  in  my  bosom  revived  in  about  a 
quarter  of  an  hour ;  feeling  it  move,  I  took  it  out  to 
look  at  it ;  but  perceiving  it  not  sufficiently  come 
to  itself,  I  put  it  in  again  :  in  about  another  quarter, 
feeling  it  flutter  pretty  briskly,  I  took  it  out  and  ad- 


MIGRATION.  281 

mired  it.  Being  now  perfectly  recovered,  before  I 
was  aware,  it  took  flight ;  the  covering  of  the  boat 
prevented  me  seeing  where  it  went.  The  bird  on 
the  board,  though  exposed  to  a  full  sun,  yet  I  pre- 
sume, from  a  chillness  of  the  air,  did  not  revive  so 
as  to  be  able  to  fly."* 

White  of  Selborne  was  so  much  convinced  of  the 
probability  of  swallows  remaining  hid  or  torpid  du- 
ring winter,  that  he  attempted  to  watch  them  to 
their  retreat,  and  actually  saw  them  dart  down 
above  some  low  shrubs  for  several  evenings  to- 
gether. 

The  Rev.  W.  T.  Bree,  an  excellent  observer,  who 
has  for  many  years  attended  to  the  arrival  and  de- 
parture of  swallows,  seems  to  incline  to  a  similar 
opinion  with  that  of  White.  There  can  be  no  ques- 
tion, indeed,  about  the  fact  of  some  few  swallows 
appearing  early  in  April,  and  even  in  March,  before 
the  general  flight  arrive ;  a  fact  which  is  recorded 
in  the  proverb,  that  "  one  swallow  does  not  make 
summer,"  common  to  most  languages.  This  is  a 
circumstance,  according  to  these  naturalists,  "  much 
more  in  favour  of  hiding  than  migration,  since  it  is 
more  probable  that  a  bird  should  retire  to  its  hy- 
bernaculum,  just  at  hand,  than  return  for  a  week  or 
two  only  to  warmer  latitudes."  A*fter  a  review  of 
all  the  facts  bearing  on  the  case,  Mr.  Bree  concludes 
that,  "  however  far  they  may  fall  short  of  positive 
proof,  they  undoubtedly  afford  much  probability  to 
White's  opinion,  that  the  hirundines  do  not  all  leave 
this  island  in  winter."* 

Spallanzani  saw  swallows  in  October  on  the  isl- 
and of  Lipari,  and  he  was  told  that  when  a  warm 
southerly  breeze  blows  in  winter,  they  are  frequent- 
ly seen  skimming  along  the  streets.  He  thence 
comes  to  the  same  conclusion  as  the  preceding,  that 
they  do  not  pass  into  Africa  at  the  approach  of  win- 

*  Phil.  Trans,  for  1763.  f  Mag.  Nat.  His..,  ii,  17. 

AA2 


282  FACULTIES  OP  BIRDS. 

ter,  but  remain  in  the  island,  and  issue  from  their 
retreat  in  warm  days  in  quest  of  food.* 

As  the  dormouse,  the  bat,  and  other  hybernating 
animals  do  not  appear  to  have  any  peculiarity  of 
anatomical  structure  from  which  we  might  account 
for  the  circumstance,  besides  certain  depositions  of 
fat  and  a  valvular  conformation  of  the  veins,  the 
use  of  which  is  not  well  known,  we  cannot,  conse- 
quently, make  any  inference  upon  this  point  from 
the  anatomical  structure  of  swallows  and  other  mi- 
gratory birds.  But  experiment  is  no  less  valuable 
a  test  than  structure,  and  experiments  respecting 
the  conjectured  torpidity  of  the  swallow  were  tried 
by  Spallanzani,  who  found  that  swallows  do  not  ap- 
pear to  suffer  by  cold  at  the  freezing  point ;  while 
at  eight  or  nine  degrees  below  it  they  manifest  un- 
easiness, and  at  thirteen  or  fourteen  degrees  below 
it  they  speedily  perish.  In  order  to  discover  the 
effect  of  a  continued  low  temperature,  Spallanzani 
confined  some  swallows  in  wicker  cases  covered 
with  waxed  silk  to  keep  them  dry,  burying  them  in 
snow,  with  only  a  hole  to  admit  air.  After  having 
been  immersed  for  thirty-five  hours,  some  of  them 
were  dead,  and  others  exhibited  signs  of  great 
weakness,  but  without  any  appearance  of  torpidity 
or  even  lethargy ;  in  ten  hours  more  they  were  all 
found  dead.  That  they  had  not  died  in  consequence 
of  want  of  food,  he  further  proved  by  keeping  other 
swallows  without  food  in  his  study,  when  he  found 
they  could  support  life  from  three  to  five  days  with- 
out anything  to  eat. 

A  still  more  convincing  proof  that  swallows  do 
not  become  torpid  in  winter,  may  be  derived  from 
those  which  have  been  successfully  kept  in  cages. 
Dr.  Reeve  says  he  has  known  several  attempts 
made  to  keep  swallows  in  a  warm  room  during 
winter  without  success ;  but  M.  Natterer  kept  a 
number  of  swallows  in  cages  for  eight  or  nine 

*  Travels  in  the  Two  Sicilies,  iv.,  115. 


MIGRATION.  283 

years  together ;  and  in  this  country  they  have  been 
successfully  reared  by  Mr.  Pearson. 

"  Five  or  six  of  these  birds,"  says  Bewick,  "  were 
taken  about  the  latter  end  of  August,  1784,  in  a  bat 
fowling-net  at  night ;  they  were  put  separately  into 
small  cages,  and  fed  with  nightingale's  food;  in 
about  a  week  or  ten  days  they  took  food  of  them- 
selves, and  seemed  much  strengthened  by  it ;  they 
were  then  put  all  together  into  a  deep  cage,  four 
feet  long,  with  gravel  at  the  bottom  ;  a  broad  shal- 
low pan  was  placed  in  it,  in  which  they  sometimes 
washed  themselves.  One  day  Mr.  Pearson  observ- 
ed .  that  they  went  into  the  water  with  unusual  ea- 
gerness, hurrying  in  and  out  again  repeatedly,  with 
such  swiftness  as  if  they  had  been  suddenly  seized 
with  a  phrensy.  Being  anxious  to  see  the  result, 
he  left  them  to  themselves  about  half  an  hour,  and 
going  to  the  cage,  found  them  all  huddled  together 
in  a  corner  apparently  dead;  the  cage  was  then 
placed  at  a  proper  distance  from  the  fire,  when  only 
two  of  them  recovered  and  were  as  healthy  as  be- 
fore ;  the  rest  died.  The  two  remaining  were  al- 
lowed to  wash  themselves  occasionally  for  a  short 
time  only,  but  their  feet  soon  after  became  swelled 
and  inflamed,  which  Mr.  Pearson  attributed  to  their 
perching,  and  they  died  about  Christmas ;  thus  the 
first  year's  experiment  was  in  some  measure  lost. 
Not  discouraged  by  the  failure  of  this,  Mr.  Pearson 
determined  to  make  a  second  trial  the  succeeding 
year,  from  a  strong  desire  of  being  convinced  of 
the  truth  respecting  their  going  into  a  state  of  tor- 
pidity. Accordingly,  the  next  season,  having  taken 
some  birds,  he  put  them  into  the  cage,  and  in  every 
respect  pursued  the  same  method  as  with  the  last ; 
but  to  guard  their  feet  from  the  bad  effects  of  the 
damp  and  cold,  he  covered  the  perches  with  flannel, 
and  had  the  pleasure  to  observe  that  the  birds  throve 
extremely  well ;  they  sung  their  song  through  the 
winter,  and  soon  after  Christmas  began  to  moult, 


284  FACULTIES    OF   BIRDS. 

which  they  got  through  without  any  difficulty,  and 
lived  three  or  four  years,  regularly  moulting  every 
year  at  the  usual  time.  On  the  renewal  of  their 
feathers,  it  appeared  that  their  tails  were  forked  ex- 
actly the  same  as  in  those  birds  which  return  hither 
in  the  spring,  and  in  every  respect  their  appearance 
was  the  same."* 

The  story  of  bank-swallows  having  been  drawn 
from  their  holes  on  the  Rhine,  it  may  be  observed, 
is  dated  in  April,  which  is  about  the  usual  time  of 
the  appearance  of  those  birds,  and  is  no  more  ex- 
traordinary than  it  would  be  to  find  a  sparrow  un- 
der a  house-eave,  or  a  tomtit  in  the  hole  of  a  tree. 
Did  the  bank-swallows  really  remain  torpid  in  those 
holes  during  the  winter,  nothing  would  be  easier 
than  to  find  them  there ;  a  circumstance  which  we 
believe  has  never  been  recorded  even  in  the  annals 
of  credulity.  In  a  numerous  colony  of  this  spe- 
cies, established  in  the  bank  of  a  stone-quarry  at 
Catrine,  in  Ayreshire,  we  have  in  numerous  in- 
stances witnessed  the  opening  of  the  nestholes  in 
the  operations  of  quarrying,  and  never  knew  or 
heard  of  a  swallow  being  found  there  either  torpid 
or  otherwise. 

But  however  untenable  the  opinion  may  be  that 
swallows  and  cuckoos  become  torpid  in  winter,  it 
appears  rational,  when  compared  with  the  notion 
that  has  been  gravely  supported  of  their  going  un- 
der water  to  undergo  their  winter's  sleep;  a-notion 
which  we  should  not  have  brought  under  review 
were  it  not  that  it  still  seems  to  linger  in  the  fan- 
cies of  some,  from  the  authority  of  the  names  of 
those  by  whom  it  has  been  adopted.  The  earliest 
statement  of  this  notion  which  we  have  been  able 
to  trace  is  given  by  Olaus  Magnus,  archbishop  of 
Upsal,  in  Sweden,  published  in  1555. 

"  From  the  northern  waters,"  says  the  archbishop, 

*  British  Birds,  i.,  324. 


MIGRATION.  285 

"  swallows  are  often  dragged  up  by  fishermen  in 
the  form  of  clustered  masses,  mouth  to  mouth,  wing 
to  wing,  and  foot  to  foot,  these  having  at  the  be- 
ginning of  autumn  collected  among  the  reeds  pre- 
vious to  submersion."  Pennant  shrewdly  remarks 
that  "  the  good  archbishop  did  not  want  credulity ;" 
for,  "  after  having  stocked  the  bottoms  of  lakes 
with  birds,  he  stores  the  clouds  with  mice,  which 
sometimes  fall  in  plentiful  showers  in  Norway  and 
the  neighbouring  countries." 

Etmuller,  professor  of  Botany  and  Anatomy  at 
Leipsic,  a  century  after  Olaus,  gives  his  personal 
testimony  to  the  circumstance.  "I  remember," 
he  says,  "  to  have  found  more  than  a  bushel  meas- 
ure (medimnus)  would  hold  of  swallows  closely  clus- 
tered among  the  reeds  of  a  fishpond  under  the  ice, 
all  of  them  to  appearance  dead,  but  the  heart  still 
pulsating." 

Linnaeus,  taking  the  matter  as  proved,  expressly 
says  that  "  the  chimney-swallow  (Hirundo  rustica), 
together  with  the  window-swallow  (H.  urUca),  de- 
merges, and  in  spring  emerges ;"  and  we  find  from 
the  dissertations  read  before  the  Academy  of  Upsal, 
that  the  submersion  of  swallows  was  received  in 
Sweden  as  an  acknowledged  fact.  The  late  Peter 
Collinson,  in  his  correspondence  with  Linnaeus, 
"  repeatedly  urged  him  to  bring  the  matter  to  a  de- 
cisive issue  by  proposing  some  questions,  and  point- 
ing out  an  easy  method  of  having  them  answered. 
As  Linnaeus  did  not  take  any  notice  of  these  ques- 
tions for  a  long  while,  although  he  was  strongly 
called  upon  at  different  times  by  his  acute  corre- 
spondent, we  may  fairly  infer  that  he  was  unable  to 
give  any  satisfactory  answer ;  and  his  constant  eva- 
sion of  the  experimental  proofs  is  an  indication  of 
his  being  unprepared  to  support  what  he  had  as- 
serted by  anything  more  than  the  common  author- 
ities "* 

*  Reeves  on  Torpidity,  p.  4? 


286  FACULTIES    OF   BIRDS. 

The  most  recent  authority  which  we  have  met 
with  upon  the  subject  is  that  of  Baron  Cuvier,  who 
asserts  of  the  bank-swallow  (Hirundo  riparia,  PLINY), 
as  "  well  authenticated,  that  it  falls  into  a  lethargic 
state  during  winter,  and  even  that  it  passes  that 
season  at  the  bottom  of  marshy  waters."  It  would 
have  been  well  if  he  had  at  least  referred  us  to 
some  of  these  authenticated  accounts ;  for  we  have 
been  unable  to  trace  anything  more  satisfactory 
than  what  we  have  already  mentioned. 

We  deem  it  unnecessary  to  enter  at  much  length 
upon  a  refutation  of  these  opinions,  as  it  must  be 
obvious  that  it  is  physiologically  impossible  for  a 
swallow  or  any  other  bird  to  live  many  minutes, 
much  less  for  months,  under  water.  The  frog  and 
other  amphibious  animals  which  do  hybernate  under 
water  have  a  peculiar  formation  of  the  heart  which 
enables  them  to  do  so,  and  which  is  not  thus  form- 
ed in  swallows.  "  Though  entirely  satisfied,"  says 
Pennant,  "  in  our  own  mind  of  the  impossibility  of 
these  relations,  yet  desirous  of  strengthening  our 
opinion  with  some  better  authority,  we  applied  to 
that  able  anatomist,  Mr.  John  Hunter,  who  was  so 
obliging  to  inform  us  that  he  had  dissected  many 
swallows,  but  found  nothing  in  them  different  from 
other  birds  as  to  the  organs  of  respiration.  That 
all  those  animals  which  he  had  dissected  of  the 
class  that  sleep  during  winter,  such  as  lizards,  frogs, 
&c.,  had  a  very  different  conformation  as  to  these 
organs.  That  all  these  animals,  he  believes,  do 
breathe  in  their  torpid  state^  and,  as  far  as  his  ex- 
perience reaches,  he  knows^hey  do ;  and  that  there- 
fore he  esteems  it  a  very  wild  opinion  that  terres- 
trial animals  can  remain  any  long  time  under  water 
without  drowning."* 

Independently  of  the  established  principles  of 
physiology,  the  matter  has  been  experimentally 

*  Brit.  Zool.,  ii.,  253. 


MIGRATION.  287 

tried,  and  it  has  been  found  that  swallows  kept  un- 
der water,  with  all  due  precautions,  die  in  a  few 
minutes.  A  window-swallow,  which  M.  Montbeil- 
lard  had  in  his  study,  escaped  from  the  cage  and  fell 
into  a  pan  of  water,  and  it  was  only  by  the  greatest 
care  that  he  succeeded  in  restoring  it  to  life  :  a  few 
minutes'  longer  immersion  would  probably  have 
rendered  his  efforts  hopeless. 

It  may  be  added,  that  in  Germany  a  reward  of  an 
equal  weight  in  silver  was  publicly  offered  to  any 
one  who  should  produce  swallows  found  under  wa- 
ter ;  but,  as  Frisch  informs  us,  nobody  ever  claimed 
the  money. 

A  no  less  fanciful,  but,  as  it  appears  to  us,  a  more 
defensible  opinion,  was  published  in  a  scarce  tract 
purporting  to  be  written  by  "A Person  of  Learning 
and  Piety,"  who  maintained,  with  no  little  ingenui- 
ty, that  our  migratory  birds  retire  to  the  moon.  He 
thinks  that  they  are  about  two  months  in  passing 
thither,  and  that,  after  they  are  arrived  above  the 
lower  regions  of  the  air  into  the  thin  aether,  they 
will  have  no  occasion  for  food,  as  it  will  not  be  so 
apt  to  prey  upon  the  spirits  as  our  lower  air.  Even 
on  our  earth,  he  argues,  bears  will  live  upon  their 
fat  all  the  winter ;  and  hence  these  birds,  being  very 
succulent  and  sanguine,  may  have  their  provisions 
laid  up  in  their  bodies  for  the  voyage :  or  perhaps 
they  are  thrown  into  a  state  of  somnolency  by  the 
motion  arising  from  the  mutual  attraction  of  the 
earth  and  moonw 

"  Concerning  the  great  distance,"  he  adds,  "  be- 
tween the  moon  and  the  earth,  if  any  shall  still  re- 
main unsatisfied,  I  leave  only  this  to  his  considera- 
tion, whether  there  may  not  be  some  concrete  bod- 
ies at  much  less  distance  than  the  moon,  which  may 
be  the  recess  of  these  creatures,  and  serve  for  little 
else  but  their  entertainment. 

"  Thus  we  see  many  rocky  islands  in  the  sea  that 
are  of  no  other  manifest  use  than  for  seafowls  to 


288  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

rest  and  breed  upon,  and  th6se  are  therefore  com- 
monly called  Gulrocks.  Now  if  there  be  such  glob- 
ules (or  ethereal  islands),  they  must  be  supposed  of 
such  magnitude  only,  and  set  off  at  such  distance 
as  their  reflective  light  may  not  reach  home  to  our 
earth  (though  perhaps  they  may  serve  to  illuminate 
our  atmosphere),  else  they  would  ere  now  have 
been  discovered,  and  yet  no  farther  off  than  these 
birds  may  conveniently  arrive  unto  them  in  such 
time  as  may  be  most  convenient  to  allow  them. 
This  I  do  suggest,  because  it  is  as  hard  for  me  to 
persuade  myself  that  they  come  from  any  other  part 
of  this  earth  as  it  is  to  persuade  another  that  they 
come  from  the  moon ;  and,  therefore,  if  the  moon 
will  not  be  allowed,  some  other  place  must  be  found 
out  for  them."* 

This  notion,  extravagant  as  it  appears  to  be,  was 
discussed  by  the  celebrated  Ray  and  his  correspond- 
ents ;  but,  as  might  have  been  expected,  it  was  de- 
cided by  them  that  the  moon  is  too  far  off  to  be 
reached  by  our  migratory  birds. 

Dismissing  these  untenable  conjectures,  we  shall 
now  state  a  few  facts  proving  the  migration  of  birds 
to  other  countries. 

In  the  Philosophical  Transactions,!  Catesby,  who 
gave  much  attention  to  this  subject,  remarks,  that, 
besides  the  migratory  birds  which  remain  and  breed 
throughout  the  summer,  there  are  others  which  ar- 
rive periodically  at  certain  places,  for  the  sake  of 
some  sort  of  grain  or  other  food  of  which  their  own 
country  may  be  supposed  destitute.  These  birds, 
after  a  short  stay,  depart,  and  are  not  again  seen 
until  that  time  twelvemonth,  at  which  time  they  re- 
turn, and  continue  repeating  their  annual  visits. 
Pursuing  the  subject,  the  same  sensible  naturalist, 

*  An  Essay  towards  the  probable  Solution  of  this  Question, 
Whence  come  the  Stork,  &c. ;  or  where  those  Birds  do  proba- 
bly make  their  Recess,  &c.,  12mo.,  Crouch,  London,  1703. 

t  Vol.  xliv.,  part  i.,  for  the  year  1746. 


MIGRATION.  289 

whose  remarks  on  the  general  subject  of  migration 
subsequent  writers  have  done  little  more  than  re- 
peat, says,  "  though  the  secret  ways  by  which  in- 
stinct guides  birds  and  other  irrational  creatures  are 
little  known  to  us,  yet  the  causes  of  some  of  their 
actions  are  apparent.  Analogous  to  the  lucrative 
searches  of  man  through  distant  regions,  birds  take 
distant  flights  in  quest  of  food,  or  what  else  is  agree- 
able to  their  nature ;  and,  when  they  discover  some 
new  grain  or  pleasing  food,  they  return,  and  acquaint 
their  community  therewith,  and,  joining  in  numer- 
ous flights,  make  annuar  excursions  to  solace  in 
this  their  exotic  food.  Since  the  discovery  of 
America,  there  have  been  introduced  from  Europe 
several  sorts  of  grain  which  were  never  before 
known  in  that  part  of  the  world,  and  which,  not 
before  some  length  of  time,  were  found  out  and 
coveted  by  these  migratory  birds.  No  wonder  this 
grain  should  not  be  immediately  known  to  birds  of 
distant  regions;  for  above  half  a  century  passed 
from  the  time  of  cultivating  wheat,  rice,  and  barley 
in  Virginia  and  Carolina,  before  those  grains  were 
found  out  and  frequented  by  those  foreign  birds,  of 
Which  one  has  but  lately  made  its  appearance  in 
Virginia,  as  my  ingenious  friend,  Dr.  Mitchel,  in- 
forms me  that  he,  being  in  his  garden,  a  bird  flew 
over  his  head,  which  appeared  with  uncommon  lus- 
tre, and  surprised  him  the  more,  not  having  seen 
the  like  kind  before.  Mentioning  this  to  some  of 
his  neighbours,  he  was  told  by  them,  what  afterward 
was  confirmed  to  him  by  his  own  observation,  that 
these  exotic  birds  had  but  within  these  few  years 
appeared  in  Virginia,  and  had  never  been  observed 
there  before.  They  arrive  annually  at  the  time  that 
wheat  (the  fields  of  which  they  most  frequent)  is 
at  a  certain  degree  of  maturity,  and  have  constant- 
ly, every  year  from  their  first  appearance,  arrived 
about  the  same  time  in  numerous  flights.  They 
have  attained  the  name  of  wheatbirds."  Catesby 
B  B 


290  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

further  mentions  that,  in  September,  1725,  he  was 
lying  upon  the  deck  of  a  sloop  in  a  bay  at  Andros 
island,  where  he  and  the  company  with  him  dis- 
tinctly heard,  for  three  successive  nights,  the  flight 
of  these  birds,  whose  note  is  plainly  distinguishable 
from  others,  passing  over  head  northerly,  which  is 
their  direct  way  from  Cuba  to  Carolina.  This  led 
him  to  conclude  that,  after  partaking  of  the  earlier 
crop  of  rice  in  Cuba,  they  proceed  over  the  sea  to 
Carolina  with  the  same  object,  the  rice  being  there 
ready  for  them. 

The  same  writer  speaks  of  the  bluewing  teal,  a 
bird  which,  in  the  month  of  August,  comes  in  great 
numbers  to  Carolina,  and  remains  until  the  rice,  on 
which  they  feed,  is  gathered  in,  in  the  month  of 
October.  In  Virginia,  where  no  rice  grew,  they 
fed  on  a  kind  of  wild  oat,  growing  in  the  marshes, 
and  in  both  instances  became  extremely  fat. 

The  same  observant  naturalist,  in  his  fine  work 
on  the  natural  history  of  Carolina,  Florida,  and  the 
Bahama  Islands,  gives  an  account  of  a  migratory 
bird,  which  he  calls  the  ricebird.  The  following  is 
an  abridgment  of  his  account :  In  the  beginning  of 
September,  while  the  grain  of  rice  is  yet  soft  and 
milky,  innumerable  flights  of  these  birds  arrive  from 
some  remote  parts,  to  the  great  detriment  of  the  in- 
habitants. In  the  year  1740,  an  inhabitant  near 
Ashley  River  had  forty  acres  of  rice  so  devoured 
by  them  that  he  was  in  doubt  whether  the  quantity 
they  had  left  was  worth  the  expense  of  gathering  in. 
They  are  in  Carolina  esteemed  more  delicate  eat- 
ing than  any  other  bird.  When  they  first  arrive 
they  are  lean,  but  become  in  a  few  days  so  exces- 
sively fat,  that  they  fly  sluggishly  and  with  difficulty, 
and,  when  shot,  frequently  break  with  the  fall :  they 
continue  three  weeks,  and  retire  by  the  time  that 
the  rice  begins  to  harden.  He  mentions  it  as  a 
very  singular  circumstance,  that  the  henbird  alone 
comes  in  the  September  visit.  Seeing  them  to  be 


MIGRATION.  291 

all  feathered  alike,  he  at  first  imagined  that  they 
were  the  young  of  both  sexes  not  perfected  in  their 
colours;  but  by  opening  several  scores,  as  they 
were  prepared  for  the  spit,  he  found  them  to  be  all 
females ;  and,  after  repeated  searches,  he  was  never 
able  to  find  one  cockbird  at  that  time  of  the  year. 
But  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  another  transient  visit 
was  paid,  and  then  the  different  sexes  were  plainly 
distinguishable. 

A  remarkable  example  of  this  kind  of  migration 
is  afforded  by  the  passenger-pigeon  of  America,  the 
history  of  which  is  given  by  Audubon,  in  his  Orni- 
thological Biography.  "  The  most  important  facts," 
he  says,  "  connected  with  its  habits,  relate  to  its 
migrations.  These  are  entirely  owing  to  the  ne- 
cessity of  procuring  food,  and  are  not  performed 
with  the  view  of  escaping  the  severity  of  a  northern 
latitude,  or  of  seeking  a  southern  one  for  the  pur- 
pose of  breeding.  They  consequently  do  not  take 
place  at  any  fixed  period  or  season  of  the  year ;  in- 
deed, it  sometimes  happens,  that  a  continuance  of  a 
sufficient  supply  of  food  in  one  district  will  keep 
these  birds  absent  from  another  for  years.  I  know, 
at  least,  to  a  certainty,  that  in  Kentucky  they  re- 
mained for  several  years  constantly,  and  were  no- 
where else  to  be  found.  They  all  suddenly  disap- 
peared one  season  when  the  maize  was  exhausted, 
and  did  not  return  for  a  long  period.  Similar  facts 
have  been  observed  in  other  states. 

"  In  the  autumn  of  1813,  I  left  my  house  at  Hen- 
derson, on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  on  my  way  to 
Louisville.  In  passing  over  the  Barrens,  a  few 
miles  beyond  Hardenbsurgh,  I  observed  the  pigeons 
flying  from  northeast  to  southwest,  in  greater  num- 
bers than  I  thought  I  had  ever  seen  them  before ; 
and  feeling  an  inclination  to  count  the  flocks  that 
might  pass  within  the  reach  of  my  eye  in  one  hour, 
I  dismounted,  seated  myself  on  an  eminence,  and 
began  to  mark  with  my  pencil,  making  a  dot  for 


292  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

every  flock  that  passed.  In  a  short  time,  finding 
the  task  which  I  had  undertaken  impracticable,  as 
the  birds  poured  on  in  countless  multitudes,  I  rose, 
and  counting  the  dots  then  put  down,  found  that  one 
hundred  and  sixty-three  had  been  made  in  twenty- 
one  minutes.  I  travelled  on,  and  still  met  more 
the  farther  I  proceeded.  The  air  was  literally 
filled  with  pigeons  ;  the  light  of  noonday  was  ob- 
scured as  by  an  eclipse  ;  the  dung  fell  in  spots,  not 
unlike  melting  flakes  of  snow ;  and  the  continued 
buzz  of  wings  had  a  tendency  to  lull  my  senses  to 
repose. 

"  While  waiting  for  dinner  at  Young's  inn,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Salt  River  with  the  Ohio,  I  saw,  at 
my  leisure,  immense  legions  still  going  by,  with  a 
front  reaching  far  beyond  the  Ohio  on  the  west  and 
the  beechwood  forests  directly  on  the  east  of  me. 
Not  a  single  bird  alighted ;  for  not  a  nut  or  acorn 
was  that  year  to  be  seen  in  the  neighbourhood. 
They  consequently  flew  so  high,  that  different  trials 
to  reach  them  with  a  capital  rifle  proved  ineffect- 
ual ;  nor  did  the  reports  disturb  them  in  the  least. 
I  cannot  describe  to  you  the  extreme  beauty  of 
their  aerial  evolutions,  when  a  hawk  chanced  to 
press  upon  the  rear  of  a  flock.  At  once,  like  a  tor- 
rent, and  with  a  noise  like  thunder,  they  rushed 
into  a  compact  mass,  pressing  upon  each  other  to- 
wards the  centre.  In  these  almost  solid  masses, 
they  darted  forward  in  undulating  and  angular  lines, 
descended  and  swept  close  over  the  earth  with  in- 
conceivable velocity,  mounted  penpendicularly  so 
as  to  resemble  a  vast  column,  and  when  high,  were 
seen  wheeling  and  twisting  within  their  continued 
lines,  which  then  resembled  the  coils  of  a  gigantic 
serpent. 

"  Before  sunset  I  reached  Louisville,  distant  from 
Hardensburgh  fifty-five  miles.  The  pigeons  were 
still  passing  in  undiminished  numbers,  and  contin- 
ued to  do  so  for  three  days  in  succession.  The 


MIGRATION.  293 

people  were  all  in  arms.  The  banks  of  the  Ohio 
were  crowded  with  men  and  boys,  incessantly 
shooting  at  the  pilgrims,  which  there  flew  lower  as 
they  passed  the  river.  Multitudes  were  thus  de- 
stroyed. For  a  week  or  more,  the  population  fed 
on  no  other  flesh  than  that  of  pigeons,  and  talked 
of  nothing  but  pigeons.  The  atmosphere,  during 
this  time,  was  strongly  impregnated  with  the  pecu- 
liar odour  which  emanates  from  the  species." 

Captain  Flinders  relates  a  somewhat  parallel  in- 
stance :  he  says  that  while  on  his  voyage  he  saw 
"  a  stream  of  stormy  peterels,  which  was  from  fifty 
to  eighty  yards  deep  and  three  hundred  yards  or 
more  broad.  The  birds  were  not  scattered,  but  fly- 
ing as  compactly  as  the  full  movement  of  their 
wings  seemed  to  allow ;  and  this  stream  of  peterels 
for  a  full  hour  and  a  half  continued  to  pass  without 
intermission,  at  a  rate  little  inferior  to  the  swiftness 
of  a  pigeon.  Now  taking  the  stratum  of  fifty  yards 
deep  by  three  hundred  in  breadth,  and  that  it  moved 
at  thirty  miles  an  hour,  and  allowing  nine  cubic 
inches  of  space  to  each  bird,  the  number  would 
amount  to  one  hundred  and  fifty-one  millions  and  a 
half." 

The  bluebird  of  America  seems  to  have  a  power 
of  continuous  flight  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  swal- 
low, and  among  the  most  interesting  of  established 
facts  on  the  subject  of  migration  is  that  which 
makes  it  necessary  that  this  small  bird  should  pass 
at  least  six  hundred  miles  over  the  sea.  Wilson 
says,  "  Nothing  is  more  common  in  Pennsylvania 
than  to  see  large  flocks  of  these  birds,  in  spring  and 
fall,  passing  at  considerable  heights  in  the  air,  from 
the  south  in  the  former,  and  from  the  north  in  the 
latter  season.  The  Bermudas  are  said  to  lie  six 
hundred  miles  from  the  nearest  part  of  the  conti- 
nent. This  seems  an  extraordinary  flight  for 'so 
small  a  bird ;  but  it  is  a  fact  that  it  is  performed. 
If  we  suppose  the  bluebird  to  fly  only  at  the  rate  of 
BBS 


294  FACULTIES    OP   BIRDS. 

a  mile  a  minute,  which  is  less  than  I  have  actually 
ascertained  them  to  do  over  land,  ten  or  twelve 
hours  would  be  sufficient  to  accomplish  the  jour- 
ney." 

The  periodical  migration  of  the  gannet  affords  an 
instance  of  a  mixed  nature.  That  bird  arrives  early 
in  spring,  and  is  located  in  four  or  five  spots  along 
the  British  coasts,  of  which  may  be  mentioned  the 
Bass  Rock,  Ailsa  Craig,  and  St.  Kilda.  In  autumn 
the  gannets  leave  their  breeding-places,  and  are 
seen  along  the  coast  of  England  and  in  the  Chan- 
nel. In  mild  winters  some  individuals  often  re- 
main, and  even  the  whole  flock  has  been  known 
to  winter  in  their  summer  residence.  Even  when 
they  all  leave  the  breeding-places,  many  individuals 
do  not  extend  their  migration  beyond  the  southern 
coasts  of  England,  but  where  the  extreme  point  of 
the  range  may  be  has  not  yet  been  ascertained. 

In  all  these  cases,  the  distribution  of  food  seems 
to  be  the  principal  cause  of  the  movements  of  the 
birds ;  but  in  other  cases  it  is  clear  that  the  rigour 
of  the  winter  also  acts  as  an  exciting  cause ;  yet  it 
is  doubtful  whether  cold  alone  be  sufficient  to  drive 
birds  from  their  northern  haunts.  Fieldfares  and 
redwings,  no  doubt,  leave  the  northern  parts  of  Eu- 
rope at  the  end  of  autumn,  because  at  that  period 
the  ground  begins  to  be  covered  with  snow,  so  that 
they  are  unable  any  longer  to  procure  food ;  but 
they  merely  shift,  so  as  to  place  themselves  on  the 
limits  of  the  storm,  their  object  being  apparently 
more  to  obtain  the  necessary  supplies  than  to  evade 
the  cold.  In  mild  and  open  winters  they  remain 
until  late  in  spring ;  whereas,  after  snow  has  con- 
tinued several  weeks  on  the  ground,  it  is  seldom 
that  any  are  to  be  seen.  As  to  swallows,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  same  cause  operates  most  powerfully 
on  them,  because,  as  we  have  seen,  they  are  capa- 
ble of  bearing  as  much  cold  as  other  small  birds. 

How  far  the  migrations  of  birds  may  extend,  has 


MIGRATION.  295 

not,  we  believe,  been  yet  settled  in  any  one  in- 
stance, with  a  satisfactory  degree  of  precision.  In 
the  beginning  of  April  the  stork  arrives  in  small 
flocks  in  Holland,  where  it  is  sure  to  meet  with  a 
hospitable  reception,  and  where  it  returns  year  after 
year  to  the  same  chimney-top.  In  the  beginning 
of  August,  when  the  young  are  fully  fledged,  it  pre- 
pares for  its  departure,  multitudes  assembling  from 
the  surrounding  districts,  and  chattering  with  their 
bills,  as  if  in  mutual  congratulation.  At  length,  on 
the  appointed  night,  the  whole  band  mount  into  the 
higher  regions  of  the  air,  and  pursue  their  south- 
ward course,  until  they  alight  among  the  marshes 
of  northern  Africa,  and  especially  Egypt,  where 
they  have  been  seen  in  the  winter. 

On  the  subject  of  the  migration  of  storks  we 
may  quote  the  following  anecdote,  which  appeared 
lately  in  several  public  journals : 

"  Last  year  (1833)  a  Polish  gentleman  having 
caught  a  stork  upon  his  estate  near  Lemburg,  put 
round  its  neck  an  iron  collar  with  this  inscription, 
*  Haec  ciconia  ex  Polonia'  (this  stork  comes  from 
Poland),  and  set  it  at  liberty.  This  year  the  bird  re- 
turned to  the  same  spot,  and  was  again  caught  by  the 
same  person.  It  had  acquired  a  new  collar  of  gold, 
with  the  inscription, '  India  cum  donis  remittit  cico- 
niam  Polonis'  (India  sends  back  the  stork  to  the 
Poles  with  gifts).  The  gentleman,  after  having 
shown  the  inscription  to  his  neighbours,  again  set 
the  bird  at  liberty."*  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that 
the  stork  emigrates  on  the  approach  of  winter,  even 
when  circumstances  of  food  or  climate  cannot  op- 
erate, or  can  operate  but  faintly  in  inducing  it  to  do 
so.  Thus,  at  Bagdad,  which  enjoys  an  extremely 
mild  winter,  and  where  even  a  slight  degree  of  frost 
is  not  usual,  the  stork  regularly  leaves  the  place 
against  the  approach  of  that  season. 

*  "Atlas,"  December 21,  1834. 


296  FACULTIES    OF   BIRDS. 

In  like  manner  the  quail,  which  in  spring  is  dif- 
fused over  all  the  temperate  regions  of  Europe,  is 
known  to  betake  itself,  in  autumn,  to  the  coasts  of 
Africa,  and  to  penetrate  into  Arabia  and  Persia. 
Notwithstanding  the  smallness  of  their  wings,  they 
cross  the  Mediterranean:  they  wait  whole  weeks 
for  a  favourable  wind,  reposing  on  every  small  isle  : 
hence  they  are  taken  by  thousands  on  the  Ionian 
isles  and  the  coast  of  Asia.  Should  the  wind 
change  rapidly,  great  numbers  of  them  perish  in  the 
sea.  Swallows  have  been  seen  crossing  the  Medi- 
terranean in  autumn  towards  the  African  shores,  but 
where  their  voyage  terminates  is  yet  unknown. 

It  is  remarkable  that  all  migratory  birds,  when 
detained  in  captivity,  manifest  great  agitation  when 
the  period  of  their  migration  arrives,  insomuch  that 
some  of  them,  the  quail  in  particular,  occasionally 
kill  themselves  through  their  efforts  to  escape. 
This  agitation  is  always  greatest  at  night,  proving, 
together  with  observation,  that  birds  generally  com- 
mence their  flight  at  that  time.  The  cause  of  this 
pervading  inquietude  cannot  be  attributed  either  to 
the  want  of  food  or  the  increase  of  cold,  it  being 
experienced  by  individuals  removed  from  the  influ- 
ence of  either,  and  therefore  must  reside  in  some  as 
yet  mysterious  warning,  no  doubt  produced  by  nat- 
ural causes,  which  the  Creator  and  Preserver  of  the 
universe  has  found  necessary  to  the  safety  of  his 
creatures. 

It  may  seem  strange  that  birds,  such  as  the  quail 
and  landrail,  remarkable  for  their  limited  powers  of 
flight,  should  be  able  to  perform  so  extensive  a  jour- 
ney as  that  from  England  to  Egypt ;  but  doubtless 
these,  and  many  species  of  small  birds,  instead  of 
flying  continuously,  proceed  at  intervals  only,  jour- 
neying by  night  and  resting  by  day.  The  celerity 
with  which  swallows  fly  renders  any  exploit  by 
them  on  the  wing  credible  enough ;  and  the  steady 
flight  of  gannets,  geese,  and  ducks,  is  obviously  ca- 


MIGRATION.  297 

pable  of  carrying  them  over  a  very  large  space  in  a 
short  time.  The  flight  of  birds  generally  may  be 
estimated  at  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty 
miles  an  hour ;  and  if  we  take  the  mean  of  this,  we 
shall  find  it  sufficient  to  enable  the  migratory  birds 
to  perform  the  most  extended  journeys.  The  won- 
der is  not  in  the  flight  itself,  but  in  the  impulse  and 
instinct  by  which  it  is  commenced  and  carried  on. 

Pennant  finds  no  difficulty  in  accounting  for  the 
motive  of  migrations :  a  defect  of  food  at  certain 
seasons,  or  the  want  of  a  secure  asylum  from  the 
persecutions  of  man  during  the  time  of  courtship, 
incubation,  and  nutrition.  He  considers  that  most 
of  the  birds  which  leave  England  in  spring,  to  spend 
the  summer  elsewhere,  have  been  traced  to  Lap- 
land, a  country  of  lakes,  rivers,  swamps,  and  alps, 
covered  with  thick  and  gloomy  forests,  that  afford 
shelter  during  summer  to  these  fowls,  which  in 
winter  disperse  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe. 
In  these  arctic  regions,  in  consequence  of  the 
thickness  of  the  woods,  the  ground  remains  soft 
and  penetrable  to  the  woodcocks  and  other  slen- 
der-billed fowls ;  and  for  the  web-footed  birds  the 
water  affords  innumerable  larvae  of  the  gnat.  The 
days  are  there  long,  and  the  beautiful  meteorous 
nights  indulge  them  with  every  opportunity  of 
collecting  so  minute  a  food,  while  mankind  is 
very  sparingly  scattered  over  those  vast  northern 
wastes. 

The  migration  of  winter  birds  of  passage  doubt- 
less proceeds  on  the  same  general  law  as  that  which 
regulates  the  movements  of  those  birds  which  spend 
the  summer  in  England  and  leave  it  in  winter. 
Birds  which  find  the  temperature  and  circumstances 
of  summer  in  that  country  most  congenial  to  their 
wants  and  habits,  retire  on  the  approach  of.  severe 
weather  to  find  something  similar  in  the  south; 
while  others,  which  remain  there  in  winter  to 
avoid  the  extreme  rigour  of  that  season  in  the  most 


298  FACULTIES    OF   BIRDS. 

northerly  regions,  return  to  their  own  country  when 
that  rigour  has  abated. 

M.  Brehm,  who  has  given  much  attention  to  the 
subject  of  the  migration  of  birds,  considers  the 
following  facts  as  established.  Every  bird  has  its 
native  country,  where  it  freely  reproduces,  and  re- 
mains part  of  the  year,  travelling  in  the  remain- 
der. Most  birds  spend  half  the  year  at  their  home, 
and  pass  the  other  half  in  travelling.  Some,  par- 
ticularly birds  of  prey,  travel  by  day,  but  by  far 
the  greater  part  travel  by  night ;  and  some  perform 
their  migrations  indifferently  either  by  day  or  night, 
They  seem  to  pass  the  whole  of  their  migration 
without  sleep,  for  they  employ  the  day  in  seeking 
their  food,  stopping  in  the  places  where  they  are 
most  likely  to  find  it.  They  commonly  keep  very 
high  in  the  air,  and  always  at  nearly  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  earth,  so  that  they  rise  very  high 
over  mountains,  and  fly  lower  along  valleys.  They 
require  a  wind  that  blows  against  them,  as  a  con- 
trary wind  assists  and  raises  them.  This  last  state- 
ment must,  however,  we  imagine,  be  subject  to 
some  very  large  exceptions. 

The  same  writer  thus  answers  the  rather  difficult 
question,  "  What  decides  birds  to  emigrate  ?"  It  is 
not  want  of  nourishment,  for  most  of  them  com- 
mence their  migration  while  there  is  still  abundance 
in  the  country  they  are  leaving.  Atmospherical 
currents  are  not  the  cause,  nor  do  the  changes  of 
season  explain  it,  as  the  greatest  number  set  off 
while  the  weather  is  yet  fine ;  and  others,  as  the 
larks  and  starlings,  arrive  while  the  season  is  bad. 
Atmospherical  influences  can  only  hasten  the  mi- 
gration in  autumn,  but  must  rather  retard  or  de- 
range it  in  spring.  It  is  the  presentiment  of  what  is 
to  happen  which  determines  birds  to  begin  their 
journey.  It  is  an  instinct  which  urges  them,  and 
which  initiates  them  into  the  meteoric  alterations 
that  are  preparing.  They  have  a  particular  faculty 


CONCLUSION.  299 

of  foreseeing  the  rigours  of  the  coming  season ;  an 
exquisite  sensibility  for  the  perception  of  atmo- 
spherical changes  that  are  not  yet  arrived,  but  are 
approaching. 

In  conclusion,  the  migration  of  birds  is  a  subject 
on  which  comparatively  few  observations  have  yet 
been  made.  Even  the  precise  periods  of  their  ap- 
pearance and  disappearance  in  different  parts  of 
Europe  have  not  been  noted  with  the  necessary  de- 
gree of  attention ;  and  until  persons  properly  quali- 
fied shall  undertake  the  task,  we  must  remain  con- 
tented with  vague  notices  and  unfounded  conjec- 
tures. The  migration  of  fishes,  which  is  an  equally 
wonderful,  if  not  equally  interesting  phenomenon, 
is,  in  a  great  measure,  placed  beyond  our  investiga- 
tion ;  but  that  of  birds,  being  observable  by  any  in- 
dividual residing  in  the  country,  or  making  daily 
excursions  to  it,  and  sufficiently  acquainted  with 
the  species,  might  be  illustrated  by  simultaneous 
exertions  made  at  different  stations  along  the  coasts 
and  in  the  interior. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

CONCLUSION. 

"  ILLUSTRATIONS  of  the  power,  wisdom,  and  good- 
ness of  the  Creator,"  says  a  late  author,  "  might  be 
produced  from  the  works  of  nature  without  end; 
they  meet  us  at  every  turn;  and  to  whatever  de- 
partment our  inquiries  are  directed,  they  flow  in 
upon  us  in  overwhelming  abundance.  It  is  well 
worthy  of  remark,  indeed,  as  showing  the  depth 
and  solidity  of  the  foundation  on  which  rests  the 
existence  of  a  supreme,  intelligent,  and  beneficent 


300  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

First  Cause,  that  the  farther  we  push  our  discover- 
ies, the  more  clearly  are  the  divine  perfections  ex- 
hibited. It  is  not  merely  true,  that  on  a  superficial 
view  we  perceive  the  necessity  of  believing  that  a 
limited  and  changing  world,  such  as  that  in  which 
we  dwell,  could  neither  exist  without  being  pro- 
duced, nor  be  the  author  of  its  own  existence ;  and 
that  there  must  therefore  be,  beyond  the  range  of 
our  senses,  an  independent  and  uncreated  Essence, 
without  beginning,  without  bounds,  incapable  of 
change,  intelligent,  ever  active,  all  pervading;  but 
it  it  is  also  certain  that  these  primd  facie  views,  as 
they  may  be  called,  are  not  only  uncontradicted,  but 
fully  established  by  the  most  minute  survey  of  the 
objects  within  the  sphere  of  our  vision;  so  that  he 
who  penetrates  the  deepest  into  the  secrets  of  na- 
ture, only  multiplies  proofs  of  that  most  sublime 
and  most  animating  truth,  that  '  Verily  there  is  a 
God,  who  made  and  rules  the  universe.'  "* 

The  study  of  ornithology,  in  all  its  aspects,  af- 
fords numerous  illustrations  of  the  truth  of  these 
observations.  Whether  we  consider  the  external 
form  and  anatomical  structure  of  birds,  or  examine 
their  faculties  and  habits,  or  compare  them  among 
themselves  or  with  each  other,  or  turn  our  attention 
to  the  admirable  adaptation  of  their  whole  frame 
and  constitution  to  the  circumstances  of  external 
nature  in  the  particular  locality  which  they  are  des- 
tined to  inhabit,  or  regard  them  with  reference  to 
other  animals,  either  in  their  bodily  powers  or  their 
instinctive  impulses,  or  their  mental  qualities ;  in 
every  light  in  which  it  is  possible  to  view  the  sub- 
ject, the  conclusion  which  irresistibly  forces  itself 
on  the  mind  is  always  the  same.  Contrivance  in- 
exhaustible, intelligence  vast  and  comprehensive, 
still  infinitely  beyond  the  grasp  of  the  human  intel- 
lect, combined  with  a  power  which  never  fails  to 

*  Bushman's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Nature,  London, 
1834. 


CONCLUSION.  301 

effect  its  object,  and  a  goodness  which  makes  life 
in  all  its  forms  a  blessing,  are  the  characters  which 
in  this,  as  well  as  in  every  other  department  of  na- 
ture, are  conspicuous  and  undeniable.  It  is  not  ab- 
solute perfection  indeed  which  in  this  search  we 
discover.  We  are  ourselves  imperfect,  and  the 
world  around  us  is  imperfect ;  but  it  is  a  relative 
perfection  which  suits  everything  to  its  present 
condition,  and  which  leaves  nothing  for  a  man  to 
feel  in  contemplating  it  but  a  mingled  sentiment 
of  mysterious  awe,  profound  admiration,  and  over- 
flowing gratitude. 

In  bringing  this  volume  to  a  close,  let  us  collect 
the  proofs  which  belong  to  this  division  of  nature 
into  one  point  of  view,  by  a  rapid  glance  over  the 
road  that  has  been  travelled. 

In  considering  the  external  form  of  a  bird,  the 
first  thing  that  strikes  the  philosophical  inquirer  is 
the  wisdom  with  which  Providence  has  adapted  it 
to  the  element  in  which  it  is  destined  to  move.  In 
its  smooth  pointed  bill,  and  gradually  enlarging  head 
and  neck,  he  perceives  an  instrument  admirably  cal- 
culated to  penetrate  the  yielding  air.  The  rounded, 
prowlike  shape  of  its  breast,  too,  is  adapted  with 
mathematical  exactness  to  the  same  useful  purpose ; 
while  its  flexible  tail  is  made  with  surprising  skill  to 
perform  the  part  of  a  rudder  ;  and  its  wings  equally 
poised,  and  furnished  with  quills  and  feathers  mod- 
elled by  numerous  wonderful  contrivances,  at  once 
for  lightness,  for  strength,  and  for  tenacity,  and  al- 
together exhibiting  a  machine .  of  the  most  per- 
fect kind  for  aerial  navigation.  The  very  varieties 
in  the  nature  of  this  machinery,  adapted  as  they 
are  to  the  faculties  and  instincts  of  each  species, 
impress  the  mind  with  a  deep  sense  of  the  minute 
and  skilful  care  of  a  beneficent  Creator,  and  give  a 
peculiar  interest  to  the  investigation. 

When  we  proceed  from  the  external  form  to  the 
consideration  of  the  internal  structure  of  birds,  as 
Cc 


302  FACULTIES    OF  BIRDS. 

adapted  to  their  peculiar  function  of  moving  through 
the  air,  we  perceive  a  system  of  contrivances  evi- 
dently intended  to  promote  the  same  end.  In  the 
mechanical  art  exhibited  in  the  formation  of  the 
bones  and  muscles,  by  which  power  and  motion  is 
given  to  the  wings ;  in  the  conformation  of  all  the 
bones,  uniting  strength  with  lightness ;  in  the  air  so 
singularly  distributed  through  the  bones  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  body;  in  the  modification  of  the  intes- 
tines ;  in  the  whole  comparative  anatomy,  in  short, 
of  the  winged  tribes,  we  trace,  with  an  astonishment 
increasing  in  proportion  to  the  diligence  of  the  re- 
search, the  same  unceasing  solicitude  to  adapt  ev- 
erything to  their  nature. 

If  again  we  compare  the  different  species  of  birds 
among  themselves,  whether  as  to  the  climate  they 
are  formed  to  inhabit,  or  the  localities  they  are  des- 
tined to  frequent,  or  the  food  on  which  they  are  in- 
tended to  subsist,  we  still  meet  with  obvious  indica- 
tions of  wise  and  beneficent  design.  Contrast  the 
legs  and  feet  of  the  swift,  which  never  alights  on 
the  ground,  but  clings  to  the  perpendicular  face 
of  walls  and  rocks,  with  those  of  the  heron,  which 
wades  in  search  of  food  on  the  margin  of  the  marshy 
pool,  or  compare  the  broad-billed  and  web-footed 
duck,  whose  proper  element  is  the  water,  with  the 
sharp  talons  and  strong  hooked  beak  of  the  eagle 
and  other  birds  of  prey ;  and  with  certainty  we  must 
infer  the  wide  difference  of  their  habits  and  instincts, 
from  the  simple  inspection  of  the  instruments  with 
which  their  Creator  has  furnished  them. 

In  the  mutual  adaptations,  indeed,  of  the  struc- 
ture of  the  various  races  of  birds  to  their  faculties 
and  propensities,  we  perceive  a  world  of  wonders, 
calculated  to  make  a  lively  impression  on  a  reflect- 
ing mind,  and  to  fill  it  with  the  most  interesting 
views  of  the  great  Author  of  Nature.  In  examining 
the  vast  variety  of  these  faculties  and  propensities, 
we  have  uniformly  found  that  a  corresponding  va- 


CONCLUSION.  303 

riety  exists  in  the  conformation  of  the  species, 
which  irresistibly  confirms  what  every  department 
of  nature  unites  in  proclaiming,  that  nothing  is 
formed  without  an  intelligent,  consistent,  and  infi- 
nitely comprehensive  plan.  We  do  not  know  if 
there  be  any  other  class  of  animals,  from  the  mi- 
croscopic insect  whose  world  is  a  blade  of  grass,  up 
to  the  quadruped  that  ranges  the  woods  and  the 
forests,  which  in  this  respect  teaches  lessons  of 
more  varied  and  edifying  instruction.  The  earth, 
the  air,  and  the  waters  teem  with  feathered  inhabi- 
tants, and,  in  reference  to  all  these  elements,  the 
peculiarities  with  which  the  Creator  has  distin- 
guished the  various  tribes  is  amazing,  whether  we 
consider  the  wisdom  and  beneficence  of  the  con- 
trivances in  themselves,  or  the  consummate  skill 
with  which  they  are  suited  to  the  respective  situa- 
tion in  which  these  tribes  are  intended  to  exist. 
Consider,  for  example,  the  productive  powers  and 
the  corresponding  instincts  by  which  Providence 
has  secured  the  preservation  of  the  respective  spe- 
cies. The  egg  is  itself  an  admirable  production; 
and  how  mysteriously  is  the  chick  developed,  till  it 
bursts  its  own  shell  at  the  appointed  and  appro- 
priate moment,  rejoicing  in  its  new  existence ! 
The  nest,  too,  sometimes  so  artificially  formed  by 
the  mother-bird,  and  her  tedious  and  self-denying  pe- 
riod of  incubation,  as  well  as  her  maternal  care  of 
the  callow  brood  when  hatched,  are  instances  so 
full  of  intelligence  and  forethought,  that  it  seems 
as  if  the  hand  of  the  Deity  himself  were  visibly 
displayed,  tenderly  guiding  her  unconscious  path. 

Nor  is  it  possible  to  overlook  the  means  and 
adaptations  by  which  the  life  thus  mysteriously  be- 
stowed continues  to  be  preserved.  To  all  the  spe- 
cies, however  .diversified,  food  of  some  kind  is  ne- 
cessary; and  therefore  all  are  furnished  with  or- 
gans of  swallowing  and  digesting  suited  to  their 
respective  wants.  But  these  organs  would  be  alto- 


304  FACULTIES    OF   BIRDS. 

gether  useless  were  not  two  considerations  super- 
added — an  instinct  to  desire  and  select  the  proper 
food,  and  a  locality  in  which  that  food  is  to  be  ob- 
tained. It  is  curious  and  edifying  to  observe  with 
what  discrimination  the  young  of  these  animals, 
without  experience  and  without  instruction,  in- 
stinctively seize  on  the  particular  kinfl  of  food 
adapted  to  their  digestive  organs,  rejecting  all 
other  kinds,  however  palatable  and  nutritive  to 
creatures  of  a  different  species.  Nor  is  it  less 
worthy  of  remark,  that  there  is  scarcely  a  vege- 
table or  animal  production  which  some  species 
of  bird  does  not  seem  created  to  feed  upon ;  and 
that,  speaking  generally,  wherever  that  peculiar 
production  is  to  be  found,  there  is  also  to  be  found 
the  particular  kind  of  bird  to  which  it  furnishes 
wholesome  food.  We  have  already  remarked  the 
astonishing  celerity  with  which,  in  tropical  coun- 
tries, vultures  and  other  birds  of  prey  congregate 
from  all  quarters  of  the  heavens  around  a  dead 
carcass  to  devour  it,  indicating  at  once  the  acute- 
ness  of  their  sight,  and  the  remarkable  provision 
which  has  been  thus  made  for  the  destruction  of 
what  might  otherwise  injuriously  infect  the  atmo- 
sphere ;  and  we  may  now  rank  this  fact  among  those 
that  establish,  or,  at  least,  illustrate,  the  wise  ar- 
rangements to  which  we  have  been  adverting. 

We  are  reminded,  by  what  has  been  just  said,  of 
the  peculiar  intensity  of  some  of  the  senses  in  cer- 
tain species  of  birds,  which  opens  another  view  of 
the  wise  and  beneficent  provisions  of  Providence. 
It  is  by  the  remarkable  strength  of  their  vision  that 
birds  of  prey  are  enabled  to  mark  their  quarry  at  a 
height  where,  to  the  human  eye,  they  themselves 
are  almost  invisible,  and  from  whence,  with  incred- 
ible velocity,  they  pounce  on  their  unsuspecting 
victims,  and  it  is  doubtless  the  same  extraordinary 
faculty  which,  if  it  does  not  enable,  at  least  power- 
fully assists,  the  migratory  tribes  to  shape  their 


CONCLUSION.  305 

course  through  the  trackless  atmosphere  and  over 
unbeaconed  seas.  When  the  carrier-pigeon  is  let 
loose  in  a  strange  region,  he  darts  suddenly  aloft  in 
spiral  circles,  increasing  the  diameter  at  every 
turn,  till  at  last,  having,  from  his  airy  height,  de- 
scried some  known  familiar  spot  in  the  remote  dis- 
tance, he  shoots  directly  forward  to  his  home  like 
an  arrow  from  a  bow. 

The  hearing  of  birds,  so  necessary  for  escape 
from  dangers  as  well  as  indicating  the  neighbour- 
hood of  their  prey,  is  scarcely  less  perfect  in  many 
species  than  their  sight ;  yet  the  external  ear,  which 
is  essential  for  producing  distinctness  of  sound 
as  the  organ  is  formed  in  quadrupeds  and  man, 
would  obstruct  their  rapid  progress  through  the  air, 
and  be  inconvenient  in  other  respects.  This  ap- 
pendage is  therefore  withheld,  but  it  is  amply  com- 
pensated by  a  peculiarity  in  the  internal  structure, 
a  circumstance  which  indicates  the  never-failing 
resources  of  the  Creator.  This  may  be  considered 
as  a  slight  and,  perhaps,  a  trifling  change ;  but  it  ac- 
guires  importance  as  being  one  of  an  infinite  varie- 
ty of  beneficent  contrivances  for  the  comfort  and 
happiness  of  the  different  tribes  of  animals,  wisely 
adapted  to  the  peculiarities  of  their  condition. 

We  do  not  know,  indeed,  that  there  is  anything 
among  the  wonders  of  creation,  which  strikes  the 
inquiring  mind  more  forcibly  than  instances  of  de- 
parture from  an  ordinary  rule  for  the  obvious  pur- 
pose of  accommodation  to  circumstances.  In  com- 
parative anatomy  such  accommodations  incessantly 
occur,  and  it  is  this  which  gives  so  peculiar  a  charm 
to  that  interesting  department  of  science.  Were 
all  animals  to  be  formed  precisely  on  the  same  ex- 
ternal model,  or  were  deviations  from  a  common 
form  to  bear  no  distinct  reference  to  their  localities 
and  instincts,  it  would  be  less  easy  to  refute  the 
comfortless  theory  of  the  infidel,  who  refers  all  the 
operations  of  nature  to  material  causes,  and  ex- 
Co  2 


306  FACULTIES    OF  BIRDS. 

eludes  from  the  universe  the  designing  hand  of  an 
intelligent  Creator.  There  might  then  be  less  ab- 
surdity in  the  monstrous  hypothesis  which  teaches 
that  all  things  have  been  the  result  of  a  mere  brute 
mechanism,  and  that  the  same  active,  but  blind  and 
insensible,  powers  which  produce  a  crystal  have, 
under  happier  combinations,  called  into  existence 
more  perfect  organizations,  and  resulted  in  the  for- 
mation of  living  beings.  Such  an  argument  would 
still,  indeed,  have  been  quite  untenable,  but- the  dem- 
onstration by  which  it  is  disproved  would  have  been 
less  perfect  and  satisfactory,  had  we  been  unable  to 
show  with  what  extreme  and  anxious  solicitude  the 
most  minute  particulars,  in  the  organic  structure  of 
each  species  of  animal,  are  made  to  harmonize 
with  each  other,  and  with  what  surpassing  skill 
they  are  suited  to  their  individual  nature  and  of- 
fices. 

Such  a  mode  of  reasoning  presents  itself  to  the 
mind  with  peculiar  force  when  any  one  organ  is  se- 
lected, and  its  peculiarities  are  distinctly  traced 
in  different  races  of  living  creatures.  A  recent  au- 
thor has  employed  an  argument  of  this  kind  with 
much  facility  in  reference  to  the  human  hand.*  He 
has  traced  the  rudiments  and  framework  of  this 
most  perfect  mechanical  contrivance  through  all  the 
'  various  species  of  mammalia,  beginning  at  the  mon- 
key and  ending  with  the  whale,  and  his  demonstra- 
tions show  that  the  very  same  instrument  is  em- 
ployed in  them  all,  but  that  it  is,  with  the  most 
astonishing  wisdom,  adapted  to  the  peculiar  facul- 
ties and  functions  of  each  distinct  tribe,  being 
moulded  in  one  class  into  a  paw,  in  another  into  a 
solid  hoof,  in  a  third  into  a  tool  for  digging,  in  a 
fourth  into  a  fin  for  dividing  the  water.  The  ex- 
amination of  this  one  contrivance  in  such  various 
forms— not  to  mention  the  innumerable  others 

*  Sir  Charles  Bell's  Bridgewater  Treatise. 


CONCLUSION.  307 

"which,  were  we  so  inclined,  we  might  adduce — all 
.of  them  curiously  adapted  by  some  slight  variation 
to  the  special  use  of  the  animal  in  whose  posses- 
sion it  is  found,  affords  a  proof  of  design  too  palpa- 
ble and  striking  to  be  resisted.  It  is  as  if  one 
were  to  go  into  the  premises  of  a  millwright,  and 
observe  the  various  mechanics  engaged  each  in  his 
respective  department  with  saws  of  different  kinds 
and  dimensions,  from  that  coarse  and  strong  in- 
strument which  divides  the  forest-tree  into  planks 
to  the  tiny  tool  employed  in  the  more  delicate  la- 
bours of  the  workshop.  He  would  say  with  un- 
hesitating certainty,  here  is  a  most  useful  invention, 
beautifully  adapted  to  the  various  purposes  of  the 
artificer.  The  existence  of  one  saw  would  be  a 
proof  of  contrivance,  but  that  proof  is  multiplied  a 
hundred  fold  by  the  skill  with  which  the  contri- 
vance is  modified  to  suit  it  for  such  numerous  and 
nice  operations. 

An  evidence  of  a  similar  kind,  but  on  a  far  more 
extensive  scale,  .is  derivable  from  the  innumerable 
adaptations  which  exist  between  the  bodily  devel- 
opment of  the  various  tribes  of  animals  and  their 
instincts  and  mental  capacities.  In  our  chapter  on 
reason  and  instinct,  we  have  entered  very  fully 
into  this  most  interesting  subject ;  and  the  prece- 
ding history  of  the  faculties  of  the  feathered  race 
will  afford  abundant  illustrations  of  the  truths  there 
contained,  and  we  scarcely  know  what  stronger 
proof  could  be  required  of  a  supreme  creative  In- 
telligence. 

In  conclusion,  we  would  observe,  that  there  is 
something  exceedingly  delightful  in  the  view  which 
nature  exhibits  of  the  multiplicity  and  diversity  of 
animated  beings,  each  adapted  to  its  own  peculiar 
sphere,  and  all,  at  the  same  time,  so  abundant  as  to 
leave  no  large  portion  of  the  terraqueous  globe 
without  inhabitants.  If  there  are  differences  in 
climates,  there  are  also  differences  of  constitutions 


308  FACULTIES    OF    BIRDS. 

and  instincts,  suiting  living  creatures  to  exist  and 
to  enjoy  existence  in  them  all.  From  the  glowing 
equator  to  the  vicinity  of  the  frozen  poles,  all  nature 
is  instinct  with  life  and  buoyant  with  happiness. 
On  the  dry  land,  the  fields  and  the  deserts,  the 
woods  and  the  forests,  the  valleys  and  the  mount- 
ains, all  teem  with  animation  and  are  vocal  with 
joy.  The  waters,  the  lakes,  the  rivers,  and  the 
mighty  ocean  from  shore  to  shore,  bring  forth  and 
nourish  their  myriads  of  living  creatures,  different 
in  kind,  but  united  by  a  wonderful  analogy  into  one 
grand  and  mighty  chain  of  existence,  all  fitted  with 
superlative  wisdom  to  their  respective  habitations. 
Even  the  viewless  air  is  not  void  of  life  and  indica- 
tions of  enjoyment ;  the  feathered  tribes  there  soar 
with  the  wings  which  all-bountiful  nature  has  pro- 
vided, traversing  fearlessly  the  blue  expanse,  and 
singing  as  they  mount  towards  the  clouds. 

Nor  is  it  to  be  forgotten,  that  of  all  sublunary 
creatures,  man  alone  is  endowed  with  faculties 
capable  of  discerning  the  Creator's  hand  in  his 
works.  Had  not  the  human  race  been  called  into 
existence,  all  these  magnificent  provisions  would 
have  been  unappreciated  and  unknown.  The  glo- 
ries of  the  Divine  perfections  would  still,  indeed, 
have  been  inscribed  on  nature,  but  among  earthly 
existences  there  would  have  been  no  eye  to  read  and 
no  heart  to  feel  them.  Man  has  justly  been  called 
the  priest  of  nature,  and  while  from  the  seen  he 
rises  to  the  unseen,  from  the  temporal  to  the  eter- 
nal, he  ought  never  to  forget  that  the  high  rank 
which  has  been  assigned  him  implies  a  high  respon- 
sibility ;  and  that,  in  proportion  as  his  vision  is  en- 
larged and  his  faculties  are  exalted,  his  duties  and 
obligations  are,  to  an  equal  extent,  increased. 


THE    END. 


